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GRADUATING SYSTEM 

FOR 

COUNTRY SCHOOLS. 



BY ^ 

ALEXANDER L. WADE, 

Twenty Years a Teacher and Superintendent of Public Schools. 



^n KntroUuction 

BY 

, Rev. J. R. THOMPSON, A.M., 

t V 

^v' President of West Virginia University. 



'The Common School, oh! let its light 
Shine through our country's story; 

Here lies her wealth, her strength, her might; 
Here rests her future glory." 



BOSTON: 

NEW ENGLAND PUBLISHING COMPANY, 

No. 16 Hawley Street. 

1881. 




LKiSE: 



Copyright, 1880, 
By Alexakder L. Wade. 



Alfred Mttoge & Son, Printers, 

34 School Street, Boston. 



PREFACE. 



Many excellent books have been written in the interests 
of popular education, and the author of this book has no 
desire to push aside any of them, but an earnest aim to fill 
a space occupied by none of them. A glance at the plan 
and scope of this work may, perhaps, give the reader a 
glimpse of some prominent points in which it dilfers from 
all other educational works. 

The common branches are taken as a course of study, and 
all the plans and appliances of higher schools — annual ex- 
aminations of graduaMng classes, granting diplomas, form- 
ing alumni associations, and publishing catalogues — are 
applied to country schools. This is simply the application 
of an old plan to a new purpose. 

The common branches are considered as the tools of 
thought, and the teacher is encouraged to give his pupils 
constant practice in the use of these tools. He is encour- 
aged to take the lead in the establishment of libraries, and 
in the circulation of newspapers and educational journals. 
He is encouraged to widen his work, and to elevate the 
school by giving the people outside of the school-room an 
intellectual uplift. 

The school is considered a joint company, in which the 
tax-payers are stockholders; and it is maintained that the 
most sensible method of promoting economy in school ex- 
penses is to insist on constant progress in the qualification 



IV PREFACE. 

and skill of teachers and superintendents, and to pa}^ them 
in proportion to their preparation and skill. 

The pupil's health is reckoned an element of supreme 
importance, alike essential to success in the school -room and 
in the business of later life; and the teacher is urged to 
secure, as far as possible, the healthfulness of the pupil's 
home, as well as the healthfulness of the school-room. 

Motives are esteemed more valuable than methods, educa- 
tion is made pleasurable rather than painful, and it is clearly 
intimated that the teacher who uses the rod as an incentive 
to study is on the wrong track. 

Woman's superior culture, and the refining influences of 
ornamentation and music, are regarded as elements of ines- 
timable worth in the educational Work. 

The Bible is accepted as the only standard of morals, and 
the fact that it is recognized as the seal of the citizen's oath 
before the court, is, of itself, considered sufficient reason 
why its sacredness should be impressed upon the child in the 
school. 

The subject of industrial education is introduced, and the 
teacher is urged to inspire his pupils with a love for the sev- 
eral callings which they are likely to pursue in later life. 

The schools of the United States and the schools of 
Europe are carefully compared, and the light in which both 
are viewed by leading Asiatic nations is considered. . 

It is maintained that a uniform system of money, weights, 
and measures for all nations should be adopted, in order to 
lessen the labor of school life in all lands, and to bring the 
business of the whole world into harmony. 

Illustrations and diagrams are used in this work wherever 
they are necessary to make the matter plain. 

The author has, all through the work, introduced the testi- 
mony of living educators to prove the positions he has taken. 
In four of the chapters of this book, he has been directly 
aided by educators especially able in the subjects they have 
considered ; and although due credit in each case is given, 
he may be permitted, here, to acknowledge his indebtedness 



PREFACE. V 

to Rev. J. R. Thompson, president of West Virginia Uni- 
versity ; Prof. D. T. Ames, editor " Penman's Art Jour- 
nal," New York; and lion. E. A. AjDgar, late United States 
Commissioner of Education to Europe. 

Outside of the author's own work, this book is an embodi- 
ment of the best and freshest educational thought of the 
broadest and foremost educational thinkers, — thought that 
is alike valuable to teachers and people. This book, there- 
fore, hopes to find a welcome in the famil}^ library as well as 
upon the desk of the superintendent and teacher. 

Without any expectation that it will rise above criticism, 
but in the hope that it may carry sunshine into country 
school-houses and country homes, this book is submitted to 
the public by 

The Author. 

MORGANTOWN, WeST VIRGINIA, 

November 22, 1880. 



COISTTEITTS. 



PAGE 

INTRODUCTION xiii 

LECTURE I. 
Needs op our Country Schools, and Aims of tub Grad- 
uating Systeji 1 



LECTURE IL 
The Graduating System for Country Schools defined, 

AND THE Mode of its Application considered , 9 

LECTURE III. 
The Graduating System for Country Schools defined, 
AND the Mode of its Application considered 
(concluded) 23 

LECTURE IV. 
Origin of the Graduating System for Country 

Schools 43 

LECTURE V. 
Trials and Triumphs of the Graduating System . 59 

LECTURE VL 
Growth of the Graduating System, and Official 

Testimony op those who have tried it . , , 84 

LECTURE VIL 
Editorial Reviews of the Graduating System in- 

LEADING Educational Journals Ill 



VUl CONTENTS. 



LECTURE VIII. 
What leading Educators say of the Graduating 

System 121 

LECTURE IX. 
The Graduating System suited to the Primary 

Schools op Cities and Towns 131 

LECTURE X. 
The Graduating System considered and commended 

BY the National Educational Association . . 135 

LECTURE XL 
Objections to the Graduating System considered 

AND answered 138 

LECTURE XIL 
Country School-houses. — Need of a National Archi- 
tect 144 

LECTURE XIIL 
Furnishments op the School-room 157 

LECTURE XIV. 
Ornamentation of the School-room 161 

LECTURE XV. 
School-grounds and Shade-trees 165 

LECTURE XVL 
Music in Country Schools . 182 

LECTURE XVIL 
The Dictionary in the School-room 199 



CONTENTS. IX 

LECTURE XVIII. 

How TO HAVE A LiBRAKY IN EVERY SCHOOL-ROOM . . 220 

LECTURE XIX. 
Newspapers in the School-room and Family . • • 231 

LECTURE XX. 
Teacher's Salary, Library, and Educational Journals, 242 

LECTURE XXL 
Teachers' Training-scAools and Institutes . , . 254 

LECTURE XXII. 
Teachers' Examinations and Course of Study . . 272 

LECTURE XXIII. 
Teacher's Salary, and Tenure of Office . . . 280 

LECTURE XXIV. 
Free Text-books in Free Schools 291 

LECTURE XXV. 
Methods for securing Attendance ... . 296 

LECTURE XXVL 
First Lessons in the Common Branches . . . . 313 

LECTURE XXVIL 
Hints upon teaching Writing 335 

LECTURE XXVIII. 
Hints upon teaching Map-drawing . • • • • 355 

LECTURE XXIX. 
Hints upon teaching Letter-writing and Book- 
keeping 306 



X CONTENTS. 

LECTURE XXX. 
Hints upon grading Country Schools .... 385 

LECTURE XXXL 
School Government, Manners, and Morals . . . 395 

LECTURE XXXIL 
Industrial Education in Country Schools . . . 404 

LECTURE XXXIII. 
Necessity for School Supervision 408 

LECTURE XXXIV. 
Women as Teachers and School Officers . . .411 

LECTURE XXXV. 
A Glance at Education Abroad 421 

LECTURE XXXVI. 
Uniform Money, Weights, and Measures for the 

World 431 



LIST OF ILLUSTEATIONS, 
DIAGEAMS, FOEMS, ATSTD TABLES. 



PAGE 

Common School Diploma ....... 37 

Card Notice of Annual Examinations .... 56 

Form of Teacher's Report for Annual Catalogue . 66 

Card Notice of AlUxMNi Meetings 71 

Card Notice of Superintendent's Visits ... 78 

The Capitol at Washington 167 

Normal Schools in the United States . . . 256 

Teachers' Training Schools in Germany . . . 265 

Monthly Pay op Teachers in the several States . 288, 289 

Diploma of Honor 301 

County School Banner 304 

Average Attendance in the several States . . 310,311 

Time Globe 328 

Positions at the Writing Table .... 341,342,343 

Pen-holding 343 

Monogram of Small Letters . 348 

Monograms of Capital Letters . . . ... 348 

The Seven Principles used in Writing . . . 350 

Diagram of North America ^ 357 

Envelopes . 369,370 

Models of Heading 373 



Xll LIST OF ILLUSTIIATIOXS, ETC. 

Models op Introduction 375, 376, 377 

Models of Conclusion 379,380 

Number of Teachers inirLOVED and Salaries paid in 

the several states 412,413 

Metric Table 438 

Progress of Metric System in Various Countries . 441 



INTRODUCTION 



It is idle to talk of the public health when the people 
are eating tainted meat. Public morality means, not that 
a few men are sober and trustworthy, but that the people 
are neither dishonest nor impure. There is no such thing 
as national religi5usness if the people are infidels. Public 
intelligence is impossible if the great mass of the people 
are ignorant, or indifferent to education. The nation's 
health, morality, piety, and intelligence must mean the 
health, the moralit}', the piety, and the intelligence of the 
people. A nation is strong and prosperous only when its 
citizens are possessed of these qualities. 

Mr. Wade has written a book entitled "A Graduating 
System for Country Schools." The value and significance 
of this work require emphasis on the word " country." It 
is written with the avowed object of improving our country 
schools. It is not in opposition to town or city schools. 
It does not seek to depreciate their v/ork or lessen their 
influence. It recognizes the place and incalculable impor- 
tance of the college and the university. This book, how- 
ever, has a single and most laudable end in view, viz., the 
improvement of the country school. The whole nation is 
interested in the character of our countr}' schools, for they 
are the schools of the people, and the people, in the end, 



XIV INTRODUCTION. 

constitute the nation. If the nation is to be pure, strong, 
just, intelligent, free, the people living in the country must 
be pure, strong, just, intelligent, free. We are to welcome 
every honest effort to render more efficient the country 
school, for in so doing we are directly contributing to the 
intelligence, the virtue, the health, and the wealth of the 
whole nation. I can conceive of no greater danger to free 
institutions than an ignorant country population ; and, I 
think, no doubt can be entertained of the proposition that 
an intelligent and thoughtful agricultural class must alwa3's 
constitute the strongest defence of a free people. Who- 
ever, then, is interested in the welfare of the nation and 
the perpetuity of republican government, will regard with 
favor every effort, like this of Mr. Wade's, to improve the 
quality of the instruction given in country schools. 

I have personal knowledge of the working of the Gradu- 
ating System in the schools of Monongalia County, West 
Virginia, and I have no hesitation in pronouncing that work 
to be '' very good." It enHsts the parents, it quickens the 
teacher, it stimulates the pupil, it stirs country communi- 
ties to almost a fever heat on the subject of education. 
Whenever a man of Mr. Wade's skill, enthusiasm, and 
good sense introduces this Graduating System, an educa- 
tional revival may be confidently expected. The system 
will not work itself; but in the hands of a county super- 
intendent who loves and honors his work, and is possessed 
of a reasonable amount of tact and knowledge of human 
nature, its success is certain. To all such I commend it. 
In the following pages Mr. Wade gives the history of 
the Graduating System, recountvS its early struggles and 
triumphs, shows its adaptedness to its work, considers and 
answers objections to the system, and discusses a variety 
of important matters in connection with the countr^^ school. 



INTRODUCTION-. XV 

It is written in a clear and readable st3'le. Some of its 
chapters have the charm of fiction. The book ought to 
have, and, when its merits are known, will have, an im- 
mense sale. 

This question of the education of the whole people is 
every day becoming a more serious and important one. 
We are scarcely past the period when the national vanity 
was swelling at the respectable figure we had made in the 
world during the first century of our history. Taken as a 
whole, the past history of this Republic justifies a sincere 
and hearty congratulation and rejoicing on the part of its 
patriotic and liberty -loving citizens. Neither among the 
republics and empires of antiquity, nor the existing nation- 
alities of the present, can there be found a parallel instance 
of such unprecedented growth and development in all that 
makes a nation great and powerful. In the light of the 
unquestionable facts of our history, a little boasting would 
seem pardonable. 

The real problem of our destiny, however, lies in the 
future. No amount of glorification over the achievements 
of the past can blind the ej^es of the thoughtful patriot to 
the duties and dangers of the next century of American 
history. In thirty j^ears from to-day, according to the 
present rate of increase in our population, there will be 
dwelling between the shores of the Atlantic and Pacific 
Oceans over one hundred millions of souls. This will 
equal the present aggregate population of England, France, 
Spain, Switzerland, Portugal, Sweden, and Denmark. 
What a might}' empire these states would form if they 
were commingled into one mass, governed by the same 
laws, ruled by the same potentate ! Such a nation will be 
found on the shores of America in the opening 3'ears of 
the twentieth century. Sixty 3-ears from this time, if our 



XVI INTRODUCTION. 

poi^uinlion ciMiliiuio to iiuMVMso in llio snnie ratio luMvaftcr 
ns it. has heivtol'oro, lliore will be' dwelling within onr 
bonndarios two hnndrod and Ibrty-six millions of people, 
eqnalling the present i)opnlation of all Kuroi)e. 

Possibly the child is living to-day who shall witness the 
period when the population of the United States shall equal 
the present population of all the re[)ublics, empires, and 
kingdoms of the European continent. 

This great mass of commingled [)eoi>les, gathered] from 
all quarters of the globe, and representing every possible 
phase of social and political and religious development, are 
to govern themselves. No one man is to legislate and 
execute for the whole. Every man is to hold in his hand 
the elective franchise ; every man is to be a sovereign. 
The laws are to be made, interpreted, and executed by 
representatives of the peoi^le. The people are to hold in 
their own hands the reins of government, and control, by 
their action, the ultimate destiny of the mightiest nation- 
ality o\\ the globe. 

Never before, in all the history of the \vorld, did a single 
political society- hold in its hands such a magniticent prize. 
They will either demonstrate to the world that man is 
ca[)able of self-government, and thus put to the rout all 
the defenders of monarchies and aristocracies, or, b}' inca- 
pacity, faction, intrigue, sordid sellishnesj<, ignorance, im- 
morality, and otlicial peculation, the}' will blast foi-ever the 
dearest hopes of oppressed humanity, and turn back the 
dial of progress for a thousand years. The most opulent 
imagination can scared}' conceive the possibilities of glor}' 
and honorable renown that will open out before this 
Kepublic if these millions are true to their high and sacred 
trust. The most sanguine prophet, in casting the horo- 
scope o'^ our future, would scarcely dare [)redict the might 



INTIlODUCTrOX. XVII 

and i)Ovvcr and grandeur of this nation when it shall eele- 
brate its second centennial jubilee. 

The problem of the future is, how these corning millions 
of American citizens shall be fitted for the discharge of 
their momentous duties. The future of this country is 
assured only when its destinies are in the hands of a fraa, 
intelligent, and virtuous people. The great paramount 
question of the hour is. how the future generations of 
American freemen shall be prepared to preserve and per- 
petuate the Republic. An intelligent and virtuous people 
always will be a free and happy people. An ignorant and 
vicious people cannot but be slaves, for ignorance and vice 
are the conditions of slavery. The sine qua non of a 
republic is the virtue and intelligence of its people. With- 
out these prime characteristics, a transient, dazzling 
splendor ma}- be attained, but it is only as the hectic flush 
of the consumptive, betokening the decay within. 

Onr future is free from peril so long as the masses are 
reached by the educational and religious forces of the 
country. Education must not only be so free that all can 
have it, but the state must see to it, on the peril of its life, 
that all do have it. Every citizen must secure that mental 
culture and discipline which frees its possessor from pas- 
sion, bigotry, and prejudice. Religion must be more than 
a history, a creed, a ceremony, a form, a church. Religion 
must become synonymous with righteousness, and it must 
be clothed in such an attractive garb that it will irresistibly 
di aw to itself the lowest classes in society, just as the per- 
fectl}^ righteous One drew around him the publicans and 
sinners of Galilee. At all cost, religion and education 
must adorn, beautify, and ennoble the homes of the Repub- 
lic. These are the bulwarks of free institutions. En- 
shrined in these, as within an impregnable citadel, the 



XVIU INTRODUCTION. 

hopes and liberty of man are assured forever. Who, then, 
are the saviors of the Repubhc? They who are teaching 
its citizens, either b}^ precept or example, to be virtuous 
and intelligent. "Who are attempting its destruction? 
They who foster vice, and put a premium on ignorance. 
The former are gaining on the latter. They are increasing 
in numbers, devotion, influence. 

We are to hold fast to the belief that this land, conse- 
crated to liberty and religion by a baptism of blood, shall 
forever be the asylum of the oppressed and the hope of 
mankind. The glad song of freedom shall be wafted by 
oar breezes, shall be murmured by our rivers, shall be 
caught up by our vallej^s, shall be ^echoed by our hills, and 
shall be borne aloft by our mountains, until its strains of 
melody shall circle the globe and the long slavery of man 
shall be ended. 

J. R. THOMPSON. 

West Virginia University, 
November 9, 1880. 



A GRADUATING SYSTEM 

FOB 

COUNTRY SCHOOLS. 



LECTURE I, 



NEEDS OF OUR COUNTRY SCHOOLS, AND AIMS OF THE 
GRADUATING SYSTEM. 

I HAVE accepted an invitation to deliver a course 
of familiar lectures on the subject of A Graduating 
System for Country Schools. I am pleased to 
see before me a multitude of interested persons, 
embracing parents and pupils, teachers and school 
officers. TJiese lectures are intended, in the broad- 
est and best sense, to represent the blended interests 
of all parties, and to invite all who desire better 
schools to unite in the work of lifting the entire 
school system to higher and healthier grounds. 

While many features of the graduating system are 
new and original, the cream of what has been writ- 
ten and spoken upon living questions by the freshest 
writers and the foremost thinkers connected with the 
cause of popular education, in this country and in 
Europe, will be made tributary to these lectures. 



2 GRADUATING SYSTEM FOR COUNTRY SCHOOLS. 

The graduating system for country schools is not a 
fabric of theories woven in the loom of fancy ; it is a 
complete system of common-sense plans, which have 
been tested by practice. Although this system is of 
recent origin, although it is still in its infancy, it 
has been officially recommended by State and county 
officers where its work has been fully tested ; it has 
been favorably reviewed by most of the leading edu- 
cational journals of the land ; it has been heartily 
indorsed by some of the pioneer thinkers in the com- 
mon-school cause ; and a resolution of 'the National 
Educational Association calls the attention of State 
superintendents throughout the United States to the 
propriety of its adoption. 

It is not my purpose in this introductory talk to 
give a minute account of the operations of this sys- 
tem, but rather to present its aims, and to give a 
glimpse of what will be brought to light in future 
lectures. But before attempting to present these 
aims, let us glance at the present condition of our 
public schools and at the results of their work. 

It is generally conceded by intelligent people that 
the common schools of the country are the pride of 
the present age ; and yet no one claims that they 
have reached anything like perfection. There is, 
indeed, a growing conviction that they ought to do 
more, — to produce a higher and purer civilization. 
The last annual report of the National Commissioner 
of Education shows a daily attendance of but little 
more than one third of the school population of the 



NEEDS OF OUR COUNTRY SCHOOLS. 6 

States and Territories. From this fact alone it is 
evident that we cannot reasonably expect the most 
satisfactory results until the attendance upon our 
public schools be made more general and regular. 
Calls for compulsory attendance, which come from 
various quarters, certainly indicate that there is want 
of harmony between the public schools and the peo- 
ple. Vast multitudes of men and women unable to 
read and write, found in every State of the Union, 
all bear testimony to the belief that there must be a 
missing link in our system of popular instruction. 

While the amount of work accomplished by our 
public schools by no means meets our highest expec- 
tations, the quality of the work is even less satisfac- 
tory. Many of our young people form in the school- 
room an actual dislike for study ; and few of them, 
upon leaving school, carry with them a love of study 
which will last throughout life. 

Viewing the work of popular education from our 
present stand-point, we certainly cannot call it a com- 
plete and harmonious system. But want of success 
in the work of our schools is not proof that our 
teachers have been unskilful in the use of our school 
methods. The fact that failure has been, in a degree, 
almost universal, points to the conclusion that the 
defect is not, mainly, in the manner in which our 
school methods have been employed, but that it is in 
the methods themselves. 

No one will claim that we have been wanting in 
the number and variety of our educational methods. 



4 GRADUATING SYSTEM FOR COUNTRY SCHOOLS. 

We have had innumerable methods in endless variety. 
Our school machinery has been too much complicated. 
Nature points to but few educational methods, and 
these are all simple and pleasurable. If in our plans 
for securing attendance, and in our modes of teach- 
ing, we will but follow the hints which Nature has 
given us, she will help us fur more than half-way 
with our work. 

It is true that many of our teachers have been 
guided by Nature's methods in their modes of teach- 
ing, and have wielded a mighty influence in lifting 
whole communities to a higher plane. Close ob- 
servers have noted the fact that, under such instruc- 
tion, young people not only complete the common- 
school branches, but they form, in school, such a 
taste for study that education does not cease when 
school days are ended. 

The further fact has been noted, that under another 
class of teachers (so called), pupils take up but few 
branches and gain but little knowledge of these, and 
they look forward to the end of their school days as 
the end of all education. 

The former method leaves the pupil with a fair 
knowledge of all the common branches and with a 
love of learning ; the latter leaves him with but 
little knowledge of these branches and with an aver- 
sion to study. The former method is as far superior 
to the latter as railroads are in advance of foot-paths. 

We have heretofore had no plan for presenting to 
the public the results of the individual work of each 



NEEDS OF OUR COUNTRY SCHOOLS. 

teacher and of each pnpil in the public schools of 
a count}^ The people of the country, having no 
opportunity to compare intelligently the work of the 
several teachers of their own county, sometimes 
conclude that one teacher is about as good as 
another, and they therefore prefer to employ the 
one who will work the cheapest. They do not, as 
a rule, seek for cheap legal counsellors, or for low- 
priced physicians. They prefer to employ the law- 
yer who gains his cases and the doctor who cures 
his patients, and they cheerfully pay liberal fees 
for such services. 

If the people of the country could see clearly 
the results of the work of each teacher in their 
county, they would employ successful teachers, at 
liberal prices, in preference to unsuccessful teachers 
at low wages. 

The several needs which I have named are met 
by the graduating system for country schools. It 
presents in every family of each county, in simple 
and suitable form, the recorded results of the Avork 
done in each school, so that every one may judge of 
the comparative success of each school and of each 
teacher in the county. 

But this system aims to do more than merely 
present results ; it aims to produce them. In order 
to produce the best results, it salects methods which 
Nature points out as suitable, and adopts plans which 
experience has proven to be practical. 

Close observation will convince that, in gaining 



h GRADUATING SYSTEM FOR COUNTRY SCHOOLS. 

knowledge, the method used by the child before the 
school period begins, and the method adopted by the 
man after the school period ends, are the same, — that 
is, self -instruction. If the process of mental growth 
and ot acquiring knowledge is alika in the infant and 
in the man, we are certainly justified in claiming that 
the same process should be followed during the 
period ])etween infancy and manhood. 

It is generally conceded by thinking people that 
the amount of knowledofe which the child chains 
before the school period begins, is greater than in 
any subsequent period of like duration. This knowl- 
edge it gains, too, by the voluntary use of its facul- 
ties. It is not forced to learn. It is self-educated. 
The pleasure it derives from what it learns is suf- 
ficient to prompt it constantly to push its inquiries 
into new and unexplored fields. It is not contented 
with a single teacher, but it persists in making the 
knowledge of every member of the family tributary 
to its education. No scientist of the present day is 
more busily engaged with his experiments and obser- 
vations than the child five years of age. We have 
but to open our eyes to see that this is a universal 
law of early childhood. It is evident that if we can 
continue throughout the period of youth this pleasur- 
able method of self-instruction, we have some assur- 
ance that study will not cease when school days are 
ended. 

If, however, when the school period begins, we 
change from the method by which the child has 



NEEDS OF OUR COUNTRY SCHOOLS. 7 

gained its stock of knowledge, and adopt a method 
of force, education at once becomes a stuffing pro- 
cess, and the child soon loses its keen appetite for 
knowledge. When the school period is ended, and 
the restraints of teachers and parents are removed, 
the man instinctively returns to the methods of 
infancy. Thenceforth his improvement, as in in- 
fancy, must depend mainly upon his own efforts. 

It is evident that one uniform method, running 
through the whole length of life, is great gain in 
time and labor. The most successful teachers of 
the present day are pursuing this plan ; and the 
tendency of all modern methods of education is in 
the direction of this through line of Nature s own 
choosing. ' 

0))scrvation teaches us that there is wonderful 
uniformity in the intelligence of children before the 
school period begins ; but this line of uniformit}^ 
diminishes at every step as we pass from childhood 
to youth, and from youth to manhood. The aim of 
the graduating system is to lift this line of uniformity 
until it shall include a knowledo:e of all the common- 
school branches. 

It has been said that " no system of public educa- 
tion is w^orthy of the name unless it creates a great 
educational ladder, with one end in the gutter and 
the other in the university." The graduating system 
aims to life all the youth of the country to the first 
round of this educational ladder. This it seeks to 
accomplish, not by regarding the school as a bram 



8 GRADUATING SYSTEM FOR COUNTRY SCHOOLS. 

factor ij^ where the teacher is attempting to get up 
intellects to order, but by the adoption of a uniform 
system of common-sense motives tending to bring 
the aims of all country schools into harmony, and ])y 
creating in the minds of the masses a noble passion 
for having all the young people complete all the 
common branches before leavinsr school. 

We certainly need some great and harmonious 
system, which shall be to the educational work of 
the country what the mowing machine is to the farm, 
the sewing machine to the family, the power loom to 
the factory, the locomotive to travel, and the mag- 
netic telegraph to the transmission of news ; and I 
believe that the nearest approach to this which has 
yet been made is the movement to introduce in all 
the States of the Union the graduating system for 
country schools. 



LECTURE II. 

the graduating system for country schools 
defined, and the mode of its application 
considp:red. 

The graduating system for country schools is 
simply taking the primary branches as a course of 
study for graduation, and making application of all 
the plans and appliances of the best academies and 
colleges to the common schools of the country. 

The time in which each advanced pupil agrees to 
complete this course of study is announced. 

Public examinations of «:raduatin2: classes are held 
annually, at points agreed upon, in each county, and 
diplomas are granted to those who satisfactorily com- 
plete the course of study. 

An alumni association, holding annual meetings for 
the mutual improvement of those who have gradu- 
ated, is organized in every township or magisterial 
district. 

A catalogue, containing a clear statement of the 
work of each school, is published annually in every 
county. In this catalogue each school occupies suf- 
ficient space to give — 



10 GRADUATING SYSTEM FOR COUNTRY SCHOOLS. 

1. The ntime of the school. 

2. The name of the teacher. 

3. The number of youths entitled to attend. 

4. The number of youths in actual attendance. 

5. The number of youths entitled to attend, but 
not in attendance. 

6. The daily average attendance. 

7. The daily per cent of attendance, based upon 
the numl)er in attendance, and the number entitled 
to attend, but not in attendance. 

8. The branches taught and the number studying 
each branch. 

9. The names of pupils who have graduated, and 
the dates of their graduation. 

10. The names of pupils who have undertaken 
to complete the course of stvidy in one, two, three, 
or four years, making clear the class to which each 
belongs. Pupils who cannot complete the course of 
study in four years or less compose the Preparatory 
Department, but their names do not appear in the 
catalogue. 

This catalogue contains also the annual report of 
the county superintendent or commissioner, present- 
ing the result of the work of the past year and his 
recommendations for the future, a synopsis of the 
proceedings of the several alumni associations, the 
names of officers and the time and place of the next 
annual meeting of each association, and also brief 
obituary notices of teachers and graduates and under- 
graduates who have died within the year. 



THE GRADUATING SYSTEM DEFINED. 11 

This system may be introduced into the schools of 
a State or a county, and it can be tested even in a 
township or district, or in a single school. 

Course of Study for Country Schools. 

Orthography, Reading, Writing, Arithmetic^ Ge- 
ography, English Grammar, and History are the 
branches required by most of the States to be taught 
in the common schools of the country. Some of the 
States require additional branches, while in others 
history is not included. 

The propriety of readjusting the common-school 
course of studies and making the course uniform in 
all the States is worthy of the consideration of the 
nation's best educators. Until this ])e done, it is the 
duty of teachers and school officers to see that pupils 
pursue the course of study prescribed by tlie law of 
the Stiite in which they live. 

Every pupil should be early impressed with the 
importance of coimpleting this course of study. 
Many of them may do much more ; none of them 
should think of doing less. The provisions which 
are now made for the education of the j^outh of most 
of the States are more than sufficient to enable each 
pupil, if well worked, to gain a fair knowledge of all 
the primary branches ; and yet few^ of them" take up 
all these branches, and still fewer complete them. 

This may be readily accounted for, from the fact 
that in many places the educational work in the 
country has been entirely aimless. We have been 



12 GRADUATING SYSTEM FOR COUNTRY SCHOOLS. 

depending for success upon methods, rather than 
upon motives. Methods are essential, but they can 
no more rise to the dignity of motives than the road 
leading to a large city, which we are anxious to 
visit, can rise to the importance of the city itself. 
No one who begins the w^orld poor will ever, by 
the work of his hands or his head, have a home of 
his own, unless he be led by motives to work for 
this end ; and no one will become a scholar, unless 
he shall first make up his mind to be a scholar. 

The graduating system is simply applying to the 
educational work certain rules or laws of business, 
which are founded on common-sense. An agreement 
to complete a certain amount of work in a given 
time for a specified sum is a rule regulating labor in 
the best business establishments on the globe, and is 
found to work equally well in the employment of 
men, women, or children. 

In order to ascertain whether we need such a 
system in our schools, let us look at the manner in 
which the courses of study are carried out in the 
common schools of the country. The branches 
required by law to be taught in the common schools 
of the several States compose a course of study far 
more uniform than any which could be formed by 
uniting; the branches tau^rht in the colleges of this 
country or of Europe. So little eftbrt has been 
made, however, to carry out this uniformity, and to 
complete this course of study in our country schools, 
that the French Commissioners of Education, at our 



THE GRADUATING SYSTEM DEFINED. 13 

Centennial Exhibition, after studying carefully our 
system of public instruction, as presented by the 
several States of the Union, in their report to the 
people on the other side of the sea, make this 
declaration : " The courses of study in ungraded 
schools are still in the tentative period, not to say 
in a state of chaos." 

So far as I am aware, this declaration of the 
French Commissioners of Education has not been 
contradicted by an intelligent journalist. Indeed, 
the leading journals of- education throughout the 
land have been laboring to impress this same fact 
upon the minds of educators everywhere, and to 
enforce the necessity for some great system to 
harmonize these chaotic elements. 

As an index to the sentiment of the public press 
upon this subject, I make a brief extract from one of 
our ablest journals, Barnes' Educational Monthly, 
In a leading editorial on " Our Common-School 
System," found in the February number, 1879, the 
editor says, "In a multitude of cases, what a child 
studies depends upon the blind judgment of parents 
or the momentary convenience or caprice of teachers. 
The so-called common-school course is no course at 
all. We most earnestly commend any superintend- 
ent or teacher who can suggest any way by which 
order can be obtained and the confusion now existing 
avoided." 

The unanimous verdict of all who have studied our 
system of popular instruction is, that the want of 



14 GRADUATING SYSTEM FOK COUNTRY SCHOOLS. 

uniformity in the course of studies, or rather the 
want of any uniform plan for inducing pupils to take 
up and complete a course, is the lame limb in our 
educational work,* which has caused so much limping 
all over the land. This universal lameness in oar 
educational body is the legitimate result of our 
school manas^ement. 

I have carefully studied this subject, and I am 
fully convinced that we should bring our common- 
sense to the front, and adopt for our country schools 
plans which have been approved by the best business 
minds of the age. The methods by which most of 
our schools are managed would soon bankrupt any 
extensive farmer, business firm, or factory. If the 
teacher of a school of' hfty pupils should be made 
the foreman of a factory requiring fifty operatives, 
and should adopt the loose methods of many of our 
school-rooms, he Avould lose his position in less than 
a fortnight. Under such manaixement he would be 
unable to hold for a length of time any position of 
like character wdiere the result of the work is exam- 
ined at the end of the week. 

I would not have you lose sight of the foct, here- 
tofore presented, that the defective work of our 
country schools is not in the main the fault of our 
teachers, but that it is the legitimate result of the 
absence of a uniform system of incentives and aims. 
The graduating system for country schools carries 
with it wherever it goes this uniform system of 
incentives and aims, and embraces all the leading 
features of the laws of business. 



THE GRADUATING SYSTEM DEFINED. 15 

God has wisely implanted in all of us a desire to 
see our names and the names of our kindred and 
friends mentioned in conneetion with honorable po- 
sitions. This desire is not peculiar to any particular 
period in life, but is as clearly seen in childhood and 
youth as in maturity. Neither is it peculiar to any 
l^articular rank or station. The common people of 
the country are delighted at seeing their names favor- 
ably spoken of in the local newspapers of their 
county ; and scholarly statesmen enjoy a high degree 
of pleasure when they see that their acts are approved 
by the ablest journals of the nation. 

The graduating system for country schools seizes 
upon this universal law of human nature and turns 
it to account. Under this system, as soon as the 
child is able lo read, and strong enough to study, 
and old enough to understand something of the char- 
acter of the connnon-school branches, it is told by 
the teacher that* as soon as it progresses far enough 
to be able to complete this course of study in four 
years, its name will be printed in the catalogue. 

Let us take a case for the sake of illustration. A 
child goes home in great glee with a copy of the 
catalogue in hand, and tells its mother that as soon 
as it learns a little more its name will l)e printed in 
a book like iJtis; and it points to the place where its 
own name will appear. Do you suppose the mother 
will not be in sympathy with this movement to have 
her child's name appear in a little volume which will 
be foimd in every flimily in the county? Do you 



16 GRADUATING SYSTEM FOR COUNTRY SCHOOLS. 

suppose she will feel no interest in letting people 
know how her child is progressing? Why, it ex- 
actly meets the wants of her womanly nature. This 
hook with her child's name in it will tell wherever 
it goes just what she has been telling in the circle in 
which she moves, and what she within wishes all her 
acquaintances, relatives, and friends, at home and 
abroad, to know ; namely, that she has a promising 
child, and that it is progressing rapidly with its 
studies. It requires no argument to prove to that 
mother the propriety of th'is plan, for she sees at a 
glance the wisdom of the arrangement, and promises 
the child all the help in her power. In the tender 
tones of a mother's voice she says, "Now that will 
be so nice: and moti.er will try to save money 
enough to get some extra copies of the catalogue ; 
and we will send them to our uncles and cousins 
who live far away, to let them know what a good 
student mother's child is." 

Encouraged by the mother's counsel, the tender 
mind of the child is turned into the proper channel, 
and it then and there dedicates itself to the work of 
its own education. Thenceforth it has an object in 
view, and study is as natural and pleasurable as eat- 
ing and sleeping. 

And do you suppose that the mother will fail to 
tell these things to the husband and fother when he 
comes from the field? Indeed, she can hardly wait 
until the time of his return, so anxious is she to tell 
him all about the teacher's plan, and what she pro- 



THE GEADUATING SYSTEM DEFINED. 17 

poses to do. And do you suppose that tlie father 
will be less interested in this matter than the mother? 
He may, perhaps, appear less excited over it, but he 
is no less interested in it. He had not supposed that 
the child was progressing so rapidly. He would 
like to know just how long it will be before the child 
can enter the class made up of jDupils whose names 
appear in the catalogue. He resolves to embrace an 
early opportunity to ask the teacher about this mat- 
ter. The mother is as anxious to know as the father 
is. She suggests that as there are several children 
in the community who arc just about the age of hers, 
she will inquire of their mothers, as opportunity is 
afforded, how these children are progressing with 
their studies ; and she will compare the progress of 
each one with that of her own child. She finds these 
mothers as deeply interested in this matter as her- 
self; and a spirit of emulation, which already exists 
among the children, is soon created among the 
parents. 

Meanwhile the father has an interview with the 
teacher, and learns from him the proba])le time in 
which his child can complete the preparatory course. 
He tells the teacher to give him notice of any books 
that may be needed, and assures him that his child 
shall not be delayed in its studies for want of proper 
encouragement from its parents. He informs his 
wife of this interview, and answers numerous ques- 
tions which she is ready to ask him. 

They scarcely know why it is, but somehow they 



18 GRADUATING SYSTEM FOR COUNTRY SCHOOLS. 

believe that this is the best teacher they have ever 
had in their school ; and they are anxious that he 
may be retained from year to year, until their child's 
education shall be completed. They believe in him, 
and are willing and anxious to aid him in any and 
every possible way. The secret of all this is found 
in the fact that the teacher has touched, in the hearts 
of these parents, a chord which vibrates ; and human 
nature is so full of such chords, that if we will but 
study them, until we know when and how to touch 
them, we may readily produce the highest harnion}^ 
in our educational work throughout the whole country. 
We now come co that point in the pupil's history 
when he is so far advanced that he may with propri- 
ety agree to complete in a given time the common- 
school course of study. In our common schools we 
want no iron-bound system wiiich will destroy the 
pupil's individuality. The individual will-power of 
the pupil and his faith in his own ability are elements 
of power in our educational work which we should 
not attempt to subdue, much less to destroy. His 
success in his studies during the school period de- 
pends largely upon these elements, and he will cer- 
tainly need both of them when he reaches maturity. 
The secret of success in education is not the destruc- 
tion of these elements of power, but the turning of 
them into proper channels. When this is accom- 
plished, the more the pupil possesses of these ele- 
ments of power, the more certain will be his success 
in any cause which he may espouse. 



THE GRADUATING SYSTEM DEFINED. 19 

A sensible and intelligent pupil, who believes he 
can accomplish a course of study in a given time, 
can accomplish it. The declaration of Scripture, 
that "all things are possible to him that helieveth ^'' 
is applicable to mental undertakings as well as to 
spiritual matters. I find in the Educational News 
Gleaner this gem of thought : " A child can learn 
infinitely faster when interested than when indiffer- 
ent.^' If this be true, and it certainly is, then the 
thing necessary to increase the pupil's power to 
learn is to increase his interest. 

In order, however, to secure a high degree of 
interest, the pupil must have an object toward 
which he is moving, and he must believe that he will 
be a])le to reach that object. There is no danger of 
damage from overwork if the pupil is interested, and 
has a variety of studies and plenty of pure air and 
exercise. Interest is the lubricating material which 
prevents mental wear and tear. We seldom become 
tired when interested, but we are always tired when 
uninterested. The evenings which a young man 
spends w^ith his sweetheart seem to him but moments, 
and the seven years which Jacob served Laban for 
Rachel, the Bible says, " seemed unto him but a few 
days." Think, on the other hand, of the dulness of 
an evenino: when there is nothinof to interest us, and 
imagine a seven years' servitude without an object 
before us. How many pupils in our public schools 
put in their time without any particular aim, and 
look upon the school period as a tiresome servitude? 



20 GRADUATING SYSTEM FOR COUNTRY SCHOOLS. 

The graduating system aims, hy incentives, to ren- 
der the school period as pleasurable to pupils as 
were the years to Jacob in which he served for 
Eachel. 

No point in the pupil's history is more important 
and critical, so far as his education is concerned, 
than the time when his age and attainments are such 
that he may, with propriety, agree to complete, in a 
given time, the common-school course of study. If 
he has been well trained up to the present time, and 
has determined to complete the course, he will be 
willing and anxious to give his name and to agree 
upon a time for his graduation. If, however, he is 
undecided, the highest skill in the art of teaching is 
here demanded. His name should not be entered in 
the catalogue without his hearty consent ; and this 
he cannot give unless he has made up his mind to 
complete the course. Decision is as essential to his 
becominof a scholar as conversion is to his becomins^ a 
Christian. 

In attempting to lead the pupil to a proper con- 
clusion, let the teacher carefully avoid everything 
that looks like compulsion. There is a universal law 
running through human nature which resents any 
attempt to drive us, even in the direction ci' desir- 
able objects. Let a young gentleman find that his 
lady-love demands his attention, and he soon loses 
his fondness for her society ; or let her become con- 
vinced that he is inclined to exact her favor, and she 
will be ready to accept the hand of another. 



THE GRADUATING SYSTEM DEFINED. 21 

This law of Nature, which common-sense dictates 
in courtship, should never be violated by the teacher 
in his etlbrts to induce the pupil to make the decision 
that he will complete a course of study. In this 
work, however, the teacher may, vnth propriety, 
summon to his aid all the helps within his reach ; and 
if he is really a ieachei-, he can, through parents and 
intimate friends of the pupil, wield an influence which 
is almost irresistible. He should feel that success 
here makes his pupil a willing student, and that fail- 
ure here may prove fatal to his education. 

AVe can scarcely estimate the advantages of having 
the voluntary consent of the pupil to take his educa- 
tion into his own hands. Forcinsr mental sfrowth is 
as unnatural as forcing physical growth ; and we can 
no more cause the pupil's mind to grow by com- 
pelling him to study against his will, than wo can 
cause his body to grow by forcing food upon his 
stomach for which he has no appetite. 

In early childhood a desire to gain knowledge is as 
universal as a desire to take food ; and with proper 
management in the home and in the school, this 
mental appetite will continue undiminished through- 
out youth and maturity. During all the years of 
infancy, childhood, and youth, the sensible mother 
places suitable food before her child ; and if at any 
time it is indisposed to eat, she aims to prepare 
something more palatable. Sooner than force it to 
eat she allows it to fast. If the pupil has so far lost 
his appetite for knowledge that he has little taste for 



22 GRADUATING SYSTEM FOR COUNTRY SCHOOLS. 

the subjects contained in the course of study, it is 
the work of the true teacher, by methods and 
motives, to sweeten these subjects, and thereby ren- 
der them palatable to the pupil 



r 



LECTUEE in. 

THE GRADUATING SYSTEM FOR COUNTRY SCHOOLS 
DEFINED, AND THE MODE OF ITS APPLICATION 
CONSIDERED (CONCLUDED) . 

When a pupil ten or twelv^e years of age, under 
the graduating system, after due consideration of the 
sul)ject, agrees to take up and complete the common- 
school course of study in a given time, he feels that 
his education is his own work. He then has an 
object in view, a point which he is resolved to reach ; 
and the full force of his wdll-power carries him onward 
like a vessel moving with the current. He looks 
forward with interest to the time when, with his 
cousins and acquaintances of like grade from other 
schools of the township, his work wdll be tested in 
the annual examination of the graduating classes. 

He begins to calculate how much work he must 
accomplish each quarter, in order to be ready for his 
graduation. He tries to ascertain from his acquaint- 
ances the progress of each pupil who is preparing 
for examination, and he carefully compares the work 
of each with his own.^ The pleasing prospect of ob- 
taining a handsome diploma helps to render his 
studies agreeable and easy. Fear of failure in the 



24 GRADUATING SYSTEM FOR COUNTRY SCHOOLS. 

coming examination is readily removed, by assuring 
him that faithful study will certainly secure success. 
The more fully he is impressed with the fact that 
his undertaking has been made public, the more 
earnest will be his efforts to complete the course of 
stud}^ in' the time prescribed. 

As the time for his graduation begins to draw near, 
he finds that there is yet a great deal of work to be 
done ; and he goes at it with a will. He devours history 
and geography with a greediness that he heretofore 
knew nothing of; and he solves problems and an- 
alyzes sentences with an ease which surprises himself. 
He now begins to feel conscious of his own strength. 
The branches upon which he is to be examined form 
his chief topic of thought and conversation, both in 
school and out of school. He can hardly lay down 
his books lone: enoiio-h to do the evenino; and morn- 
ins: chores about the house. 

He observes in the local paper of the county, at 
the house of a friend (for his father takes no paper), 
a notice of the examination which will take place the 
foUowinof week. He reads with interest a list of 
names of those who are expected to graduate, and he 
finds Ids name among them. Several of his acquaint- 
ances are named in the list, and he feels confident 
that if they can pass the examination, he can also. 
His earnest efforts to complete a course of study 
have already kindled an interest in the minds of his 
acquaintances, and they arc preparing to be present 
to witness his examination. 



THE GEADUATIXG SYSTEM DEFIXED. 25 

It is now evident to the committee of arrange- 
ments, that no ordinary school-house can accommo- 
date the multitude that will be present to witness 
the exercises ; and the largest church in the commu- 
nity is secured for the occasion. A popular and 
practical speakei* is engaged to deliver an appropriate 
address to the graduating class and to the people, on 
the evening of the day of examination. Arrange- 
ments are made to have the best music, vocal and 
instrumental, both day and night, which the commu- 
nity can produce. 

The morning of the long-looked-for day arrives, 
and our young hero, for that is what wo will call 
him, is present at the appointed time. He is directed 
to take his place in the class, and he finds himself in 
the midst of more than a score of girls and boys who 
have been as busy in preparing for this examination 
as he himself has been. The church is crowded to 
ovei^owing, and he can almost feel in the atmos- 
phere around him that the multitude is in sympathy 
with this movement. The county superintendent, 
vrho is present to take charge of the exercises, in a 
few encouraofino: words addressed to the members of 
the gi-aduating class says, '' We will commence this 
work so gently that you will scarcely know that you 
arc in an examination." The teachers of the terri- 
tory represented are present, and constitute a com- 
mittee to consider the merits of each member of the 
class, as shown in the examination. The secretary 
takes the name of each member of the class and the 



26 GRADUATING SYSTEM FOR COUNTRY SCHOOLS. 

name of the school to which each belongs, and calls 
this roll; and each one, in answering to his name, 
rises in his place and remains standing for a moment, 
so that he may be recognized by the audience. 

An appropriate song is sung, a short prayer is 
offered, and the examination begins. In order to 
avoid embarrassment in the beginning, the first exer- 
cise will be in orthography, and will be written. 
Each member of the class is provided with paper and 
pencil. The superintendent pronounces distinctly, 
and each member of the class writes down rapidly a 
score or more of test words which are of common 
use in conversation or in public prints. He asks 
such questions upon the principles of orthography as 
seem to him proper and appropriate, and each mem- 
ber of the class writes his own answer. These man- 
uscripts are then carefully folded and appropriately 
indorsed by the members of the class, and delivered 
to the committee of examination. 

The superintendent here informs the class that 
after music their next exercise will be select read- 
ings, and he suggests that during the singing they 
may take occasion to become better acqu,ainted with 
each other. They do not wait for a formal intro- 
duction, but boys and girls begin at once to inquire 
of each other how certain words which the super- 
intendent pronounced should be spelled, and they 
come to the conclusion that most of them, and 
perhaps all of them, have made mistakes. Find- 
ing themselves about on a level with each other, a 



THE GRADUATING SYSTEM DEFINED. 27 

bond of sympathy is formed, and they begin to feel 
at home. Many members of the audience have also 
written the words pronomiced by the superintendent, 
and are comparing papers and discussing differences ; 
while others are so interested in the music that they 
are imconscious of the conversation which is carried 
on all around them. 

The music ceases, and the superintendent an- 
nounces that the exercise in select reading will 
Ijegin. He takes occasion, however, to state that 
no member of the class will be called upon to read ; 
but that each one wdll rise when he is ready, and 
wdll remain silent until his teacher recognizes him 
and aimounces his name and the name of the school 
to which he belongs, so that all present, wdiile listen- 
ing to him, may know who he is, where he is from, 
and Avho has been his instructor. The superintend- 
ent further states that w^hile no disgrace will be 
attached to the one who reads last, there is an 
honor in being first in the class, and he calls for 
volunteers. 

" Our 3^oung hero " here resolves that, for the sake 
of his parents and friends who are present, and for 
the honor of himself and his school, he w411 try to 
take the front rank in this examination; so, in less 
time than it takes me to tell it, he rises to read. 
His teacher, having heretofore selected his piece, 
and'having, as he thinks, thoroaghly drilled him in 
reading it, feels an inward pride in announcing his 
name and the name of the school to wdiich he belons^s. 



28 GRADUATING SYSTEM FOR COUNTRY SCHOOLS. 

The selection is from his school reader, for he had no 
other source from which to select, and his teacher 
had nothing else. He is perfectly familiar with his 
subject, and most of the people present are no less 
familiar with it than himself. He reads deliberately, 
pronounces correctly, and emphasizes carefully such 
words as his teacher taught him to render emphatic. 
He takes his seat, and all are ready to confess that 
his reading was faultless. 

Another member of the class rises to read. He 
holds a maofazine in his hand. He states that his 
subject is entitled, "Heating Country School-Houses 
by Hot-Water Pipes at the Feet of each Pupil." 
The bare announcement of his subject causes people 
to open their eyes and ears. The article, though 
short, shows that this method of distributing heat at 
the floor all over the room is like Nature's method of 
warming the body by the circulation of the blood ; 
that, although it costs a little more in the beginning, 
it is a great saving in the end, using much less fuel 
than the former plan, and that this method of warm- 
ing country school-houses and churches is likely to 
become universal. The article closes with a state- 
ment that the next number of the magazine will 
contain a complete description of this heating appa- 
ratus, together with the cost of its construction. As 
he takes his seat, it is evident to everybody that his 
reading has won ; that it will be remembered ; that 
he has given people something to take home with 
them. It is equally evident that " our young hero " 



THE GRADUATING SYSTEM DEFINED. 29 

has been placed at a disadvantage, not for want of 
preparation, but for want of material from which to 
make his selection. 

A young lady rises to read. She has neither a 
book nor a magazine in her hand, but a printed slip 
of paper clipped from a cohimn of some journal. 
She announces as her subject, "Newspapers a Neces- 
sity in the Education of a Family." She reads with 
effect, and her hearers are almost ready to conclude 
that the newspapers of the present will soon super- 
sede the books of the past ; but her subject is quite 
balanced by another, Avho reads an article on " The 
Advantages of having a Family Librarj^" 

The oldest member of the class now rises to read. 
He is preparing to become a teacher, and all are 
anxious to hear him. His selection is entitled 
" Educational Journals Indispensable to the Teacher." 
In a clear tone and earnest hianner he declares that, 
among the great multitude of teachers who read no 
educational journals, not a single first-class teacher 
can be found. He proceeds to prove that the 
teacher's skill cannot be at its best, unless he can 
command the latest thoughts of the best thinkers ; 
that this he can accomplish only by bringing his 
mind into contact with the minds of the most skilful 
educators of the present day, and that educational 
journals are the most economical means for accom- 
plishing this end. 

A young lady rises with a Bible in her hand, and 
reads a few verses from St. John's Gospel, commen- 



30 GRADUATING SYSTEM FOR COUNTRY SCHOOLS. 

cing, "Search the Scriptures, for in them ye thiijk ye 
have eternal life." 

She is followed by another, whose subject is, 
"The Necessity for. an Unabridged Dictionary in 
every School-House and Family." 

One after another, in quick succession, pointed 
and practical pieces are read by members of the 
class. Some of the people present are about to 
come to the conclusion that, from the number of 
books and newspapers which appear to be needed, 
there is danger that work and business, and our duty 
toward each other, may be lost sight of and neglected. 
Just at this point a young lady reads from the Scrip- 
tures the following verses : — 

" Not slothful in business ; fervent in spirit ; serv- 
ing the Lord ; 

" Eejoicing in hope ; patient in tribulation ; con- 
tinuing instant in prayer-; 

"Distributing to the necessity of saints; given to 
hospitality. 

"Bless them which persecute you : bless, and curse 
not. 

" Rejoice with them that do rejoice, and weep with 
them that weep. 

"Be of the same mind one toward another. Mind 
not high things, but condescend to men of low estate. 
Be not wise in 3^our own conceits. 

"Recompense to no man evil for evil. Provide 
things honest in the sight of all men. 



THE GRADUATING SYSTEM DEFINED. 31 

"If it be possible, as much as lieth in you, live 
peaceably with all men. 

" Dearly beloved, avenge not yourselves, but rather 
give place unto wrath : for it is written, Vengeance is 
mine ; I will repay, saith the Lord. 

" Therefore if thine enemy hunger, feed him ; if 
he thirst, give him drink : for in so doing thou shalt 
heap coals of lire on his head. 

"Be not overcome of evil, but overcome evil with 
good." 

All have now read, and the superintendent an- 
nounces a recess of a few minutes. Nothing is 
more natural than the fact that, during recess, the 
w^ork of the several members of the class forms the 
chief, and indeed the only topic of conveisation. 
People present could scarcely think of anything else 
to talk about, even if they would try. 

In the conversation which is now going on, it is 
generally conceded that some members of the class 
have made selections more appropriate and have read 
with better eifect than others ; but it is equally clear 
to most persons present that the chief cause of this 
difference may be traced to the fact that some have 
had periodicals and libraries from which to make 
selections, while others have had no such helps. 

Eecess is ended, and the superintendent announces 
that, in order to make the exercises especially inter- 
esting to the audience, most of the work of the 
examination will be oral. He states that he has 
carefully prepared quite a number of topics on each 



32 GRADUATING SYSTEM FOR COUNTRY SCHOOLS. 

hraiicli upon which the class is to ])e examined, — 
topics sufficient to cover, in a general sense, the 
entire field of each subject. These topics arc written 
on slips of paper, and each member of the class will 
be permitted, at the proper time, to draw and render 
one topic on each subject. At the conclusion of each 
rendering, opportunity will be given to other mem- 
bers of the class for brief additional remarks upon 
the topic, and for criticisms upon the manner in 
which it has been rendered. If any member of the 
class should draw a topic which he is unable to 
master, he may publicly surrender it and draw 
another ; but such surrender will indicate his want of 
knowledge on that particular point. This defect he 
may, however, in a considerable degree, make up by 
additional remarks or criticisms upon others. 

The superiutendent here exhibits a number of 
topics on the subject of geography, and he proceeds 
to mix and intermingle these topics in the presence 
of the class and of the audience. lie states that in 
rendering these geographical topics, more attention 
should be given to the principles of the science, and 
to the facts pertaining to the face of the country, 
and to the character of the people, than to the names 
of unimportant places. He suggests that in render- 
ing any geographical topic which pertains to a 
country or a place, the person rendering it should, 
first of all, locate said country or place, by stating in 
wdiat direction it is, and about how far from the 
point where he is standing, and by what mode of 



THE GRADUATING SYSTEM DEFINED. 33 

travelling he would be able to reach it. Ho should 
not confine himself to his text-book. A knowledge 
of any matter of especial interest to the public 
which may be transpiring in any country is cer- 
tainly as important as a knowledge of the boundary 
lines of that country, and if omitted by the one who 
renders the topic, should be mentioned by some 
other member of the class. 

Each one now draws from the superintendent's 
hand one topic ; and, notwithstanding the choir dis- 
courses excellent music while the members of the 
class are preparing to render these topics, so deep 
is the interest that they are unconscious of its 
melody. 

Music ceases, and the superintendent calls for 
some one to rise, voluntarily, and render his topic. 
One after another, topics are read aloud and ren- 
dered, and interesting additional remarks and criti- 
cisms follow in almost every case. So deeply 
interested are the people who are present, that at 
certain points in the discussion of these topics some 
persons can scarcely refrain from speaking out pub- 
licly. The advantages gained by members of the 
class who have had access to periodicals and libraries, 
over members who have had no such help, are even 
more clearly seen in the examination in geography 
than in the exercises in select reading. 

The hour for dinner is noAV at hand, and the 
superintendent announces the order of the exami- 
nation for the afternoon, as follows : — 
3 



34 GRADUATING SYSTEM FOR COUNTRY SCHOOLS. 

^''Arithmetic, — An examination Avliich will not be 
difficult to the class nor uninteresting to the audience. 

^^Ilistori/, — An examination running back into the 
past and coming down to the present. 

^^ Penmanship , — A specimen of the handwriting 
of each member of the class, giving illustrations of 
the leading principles of the art of writing." 

I desire to say that all these subjects may be 
rendered interesting to an audience by the touch of 
a skilful hand ; and the superintendent has studied 
these subjects, in connection with human nature, 
until he knows how to interest patrons and pupils. 

The choir sings a closing piece., and the audience 
is dismissed for dinner. 

Most persons who are present have provided 
themselves with basket-dinners, and with a suffi- 
cient supply f)r supper also, as they expect to 
remain during the day and the evening. It is un- 
necessary to say that the noon hour is spent in 
earnest discussions about the work of the examina- 
tion. Every man and every woman present has an 
opinion to offer, and each one is ready to give a 
reason for his opinion. 

The members of the graduating class have now 
lost most of that timidity which is so natural to 
young people in the opening exercises of any pub- 
lic performance, and each one is quite as much at 
home as he would be in his own school. It is true 
that each one has discovered that in every branch 
upon which he has been examined, there are many 



THE GRADUATING SYSTEM DEFINED. 35 

points which he has not yet mastered; but it is 
gratifying to each one to know, also, that most 
members of the chiss are in a similar condition. 

The hour for resuming the work of the examina- 
tion has arrived, the several members of the class 
arc in their respective places, the audience is seated, 
and the choir sings an appropriate song. It is 
scarcely necessary for me to follow the course of 
these exercises throughout the afternoon. I will 
simply say that, as the work of the examination pro- 
gresses, the interest increases, until it reaches a 
degree almost equal to white heat. 

We have now reached the closing point in the 
work of the examination. The superintendent an- 
nounces that the evening exercises will consist of 
an address to the graduating class and to the people, 
by an invited speaker, to be followed by the con- 
ferring of diplomas Ijy the superintendent, and that 
all the exercises will be interspersed with excellent 
music. 

The audience is dismissed and the teachers retire 
to a private room, arranged for the purpose, to con- 
sult about the merits of each member of the class. 
Oliver Wendell Holmes, in his w^onderful work of 
wit and humor, entitled "The Autocrat," says, 
" Little-minded people's thoughts move in such 
small circles that five minutes' conversation gives 
you an arc long enough to determine their Avhole 
curve." This quaint saying of Dr. Holmes is not 
npplicable to the members of this class, for they are 



36 GRADUATING SYSTEM FOR COUNTRY SCHOOLS. 

not little-minded people ; and yet the work of this 
day will certainly give to the committee of exam- 
ination, and indeed to all close observers, a fair 
index to the knowledge which each one possesses of 
the several branches upon which the class has been 
examined. 

The first point to be settled by the committee of 
examination is whether or not the members of the 
chiss are all worthy of graduation. Some are, with- 
out doubt, superior to others ; but it is decided that 
none stand so low that they deserve to be rejected. 
This decision is quietly communicated to the mem- 
bers of the class, so that they may feel, in a degree, 
easy ^ith regard to the result. This information is 
quite a relief to them, and they have a special relish 
for their suppers, as they now feel certain that their 
day's work has not been a failure. 

The committee of examination has now completed 
its work of grading, and all the diplomas are signed, 
ready for delivery. I present you here a miniature 
diploma or honorary certificate, which shows that 
the work of each pupil is graded upon a scale from 
one to ten, — five being medium and ten excellent. 



THE GRADUATING SYSTEM DEFINED. 37 

^cpacimcnf of public ^choota 



OF THE 

State of.^ , County of. 



^>-M:HONORARY CERTIFICATE.'tf^^ 

GRADE NO 



?^t -l:> ?ie^C/CM4 c<^tl|ic-b, That, 

^9^ a pupilin the Public School in School-House 

No , District (or Township) of , 

County of and State of , has 

accomplished a Course of Study in branches prescribed by law, viz. : 

Orthography, Heading, Penniat-ship, Arithmetic, Geographi/j 
Muglish Gratnrnar and Historg, 

as evidenced by the signature of. , 

Teacher of said School. 

Said has also this day, at , 

in the presence of of the Teachers of said District (or 

Township), passed an examination in the branches above named, 
all of whom direct the County Superintendent of this County to 
grant this 

HONORARY CERTIFICATE, 

WITH THE ACCOMPANYING GRADE. 

The President of the School Board of said District (or Town- 
ship), also, by his signature hereto attached, certifies that said 
IS a person of good moral character. 

©o^ve at. ., in the County of , 

State of , this. day of , A. D. 1880. 



County Supt. of. County. 

.Teacher of School No.. 



President of the School Board, 

Scale of Grade. — No. 10 signifies excellent; No. 5, medium. 



38 GRADUATING SYSTEM FOR COUNTRY SCHOOLS. 

You will observe th;it the teacher of each pupil 
who is entitled to the same, certifies that the holder 
of this certificate has accomplished the course of 
study therein named. This is required as a matter 
of good faith on the part of the teacher, and it shows 
that, in his judgment, the holder is worthy. Each 
certificate is signed by the president of the school 
board, who certifies that the holder is a person of 
good moral character. This is required as an incen- 
tive to good morals ; and no one should be graduated 
who is unworthy of such certificate. Each certificate 
is signed also by the county superintendent, who 
certifies that the holder has been by him examined in 
the presence of the teachers of the township or dis- 
trict, and that these teachers direct him to grant this 
certificate with the accompanying grade. Xo cer- 
tificate should, in my opinion, be granted where the 
grade is belov/ seven, on a scale from one to ten. 

It is now time to bei^in the exercises of the even- 
ing, and the house is crowded to its utmost capacity. 
The members of the graduating class are seated to- 
gether, and it is evident to all present that they have 
become pretty well acquainted with each other. They 
have done a hard day's work, but they have rather 
enjoyed it ; and they are almost sorry that the time 
for separation is so near at hand. As soldiers from 
different States standing side by side, braving 
together the dangers of battle, become, in a single 
day's action, warmly attached to each other, so the 
members of this class have in this examination formed 



THE GRADUATING SYSTEM DEFINED. 39 

a friendship for each other which neither distance nor 
time can sever. 

After the opening exercises are conchided, the 
orator of the evening is introduced to the audi- 
ence. He is a plain, practical speaker, and he 
understands the wants of the country people. He 
announces the title of his evening talk : " Education 
pays; Ignorance costs," 'By argument, and from 
statistics, he proves clearly to all present that monej' 
paid by the State for the enlightenment o'f the people 
becomes an investment at compound interest. He 
proves that property must educate and so enal)le the 
people to take care of themselves and earn something 
more, by which the State is enriched ; or property 
must be taxed to support the paupers and punish the 
criminals, which grow up and curse and burden the 
State with costs, for lack of education. 

He proves to parents that, next to providing food 
and raiment for their families, the best investment 
they can make is to take stock in the education of 
their children. He asserts, and proves by persons 
present who have travelled, that prosperity is invari- 
ably seen in States where the people take a lively 
interest in the education of the masses. He proves 
that this prosperity is seen in the fertility of the 
fiirms, in the comfort, convenience, and beauty of 
the homes, and in the health, wealth, virtue, and 
happiness of the people. 

He makes it a point to prove that the reverse is 
true wherever the masses are groping in ignorance. 



40 GRADUATING ' SYSTEM FOR COUNTRY SCHOOLS. 

He shows that the branches upon which the class has 
this day been examined are but keys to unlock the 
storehouses of knowledge, — the printed pages of 
volumes and of periodicals. He insists that parents 
should see to it that their children are provided with 
a sufficient supply of suitable books and papers to 
enable them to occupy pleasantly and profitably all 
their otherwise idle hours. 

Turning to the members of the graduating class, 
he tells them that this day's examination gives them 
an index to their weak points, — points which they 
must fortify in the future. This they can best 
accomplish by remaining for some time in school ; 
but when the school period is ended, they should 
by no means cease to study. They should not 
merely perfect themselves in these branches, but in 
every possible way enlarge the boundaries of their 
knowledge. 

In conclusion, he indulges the hope that the mem- 
bers of the class Avill so fit themselves for future 
work, that they may become better farmers and 
mechanics than their fathers, better housekeepers 
and cooks than their mothers, and that they may all 
be intelligent and enterprising citizens, and earnest 
ami useful Christians. 

The choir now sings, while the audience rises to 
become rested. The thoughtful expression of all 
who are present indicates that the speaker has set 
the people to thinking on a higher plane. 

"Our 3'oung hero" here resolves that he will, by a 



THE GRADUATING SYSTEM DEFINED. 41 

course of reading, make himself more than a match 
for those with whom he has this day measured arms, 
and this seems to be the personal sentiment of each 
member of the class. 

Parents are pondering the propriety of purchasing 
books and subscribing for papers. New light has 
been let in upon their minds, and they see things as 
they never before saw them. 

Singing is ended, the audience is seated, the 
secretary calls the roll, and the members of the 
graduating class take their places, standing in front 
of the platform or pulpit. In the presence of the 
people, amidst unbroken silence, the superintendent 
presents each member of the class a handsome diplo- 
ma. In a few pointed and appropriate remarks he 
urges them to make themselves strong in hand and 
head and heart. He tells them that this is their first 
public victory, and he hopes it Avill be followed by 
a succession of greater victories won by each in the 
battle of life. 

He tells them that the^^ should regard themselves 
from this hour as an Alumni Association, and that 
he proposes, some time within the year, to call them 
together for permanent organization and for a public 
performance, consisting of original and select ora- 
tions, essays, and select readings. 

Pie announces that the First Annual Catalogue of 
the common schools of the county will be published 
as soon as the necessary information can be collected. 

He thanks the class for earnest work, the choir for 



42 GRADUATING SYSTEM FOR COUNTRl SCHOOLS. 

excellent music, and the people for fjiitlifiil attention. 
The choir sings, the audience is dismissed, and the 
people dis[)erse. 

We have now witnessed the beginning of a great 
educational revival in this community. Time will 
not permit us at present to trace its influences. This 
revival is not the result of an unnatural stimulus, 
nor was it produced by appealing to huvs which are 
local. It is simply the response obtained by an 
appeal to nature's universal law, and under this law 
we would receive a like response from any civilized 
people on the face of the earth. Other methods of 
conducting examinations of graduating classes and 
holding commencements — methods which by many 
ai'e regarded superior to the foregoing plan — will be 
presented briefly at some future time. 



LECTUEE IV. 

ORIGIN OF THE GRADUATING SYSTEM FOR COUNTRY 
SCHOOLS. 

The graduating system for country schools had its 
origin in Monongalia County, West Virginia. The 
first classes under this system were organized in the 
autumn of 1874, and the first examinations were held 
in the spring of 1876. The first country-school cata- 
logue was issued in the summer of 1876, and the first 
ahimni associations were organized in the following 
winter. I make these statements after consultinsr 
the best sources of information upon the subject, 
and I shall hereafter present some of the testimony 
upon which these statements are founded. A brief 
account of the location and educational facilities of 
the county which gave birth to this system will not 
be inappropriate. 

Monongalia County is situated in the valley of the 
beautiful Monongahela. On the east it reaches the 
slopes of Laurel Hill, a spur of the AUeghanies ; from 
thence it stretches westward, bordering on Mason and 
Dixon's line, a distance of nearly forty miles. It is 
triangular in form, and its greatest width is a little 
more than twenty miles. It has a population of 



44 GRADUATING SYSTEM FOR COUNTRY SCHOOLS. 

about 15,000, embracing over 5,000 youths who are 
entitled to attend its public schools. The seven 
country-school districts of this county contain eighty- 
five neat frame school-houses, nearly uniform in size 
and architectural style. IMorgantown, the county 
seat, beautifully located on the east bank of the 
Monongahela River, has long enjoyed a reputation as 
a literary town. Monongalia Academy, Woodburn 
Seminary, and Morgantown Female Collegiate Insti- 
tute were for many years flourishing institutions in 
this "Athens of West Virginia." It is at present 
the seat of AVest Virginia University, Morgantown 
Female Seminary, and a free graded school. 

In order to present a satisfactory account of the 
origin of the graduating system for country schools, 
it is necessary to narrate some of the circumstances 
which led to its discovery. 

In the autumn of 1873 I was employed by County 
Superintendent II. L. Cox, to visit the schools of 
Monongalia County, West Virginia. Most of my 
work as an educator previous to that time had been 
confined to the school-room. I had long entertained 
the belief that there is somewhere a missing link in 
our educational worli, and that its place, when found, 
would most likely be in our system of common 
schools. I resolved that wdiile vi-iting the schools 
of the county I would study the secret springs of 
action in school life, and try to devise a plan to facil- 
itate primary school work as broad in its application 
as the system which seeks to educate and to elevate 



ORIGIN OF THE GRADUATING SYSTEM. 45 

tbe race. To this end 1 began to study the princi- 
ples which prompt pupils to action, and the motives 
which move men and women to make sacrifices for 
the education of their children. 

I found in Sect. 55 of the school law of the State 
my duties set forth as follows : — 

" The coiint}^ superinteiident shall visit the schools 
■u-ithin his count}' at least once, at such times as he 
may deem necessaiy and proper, and note the course 
and method of instruction and the branches taught, and 
give such directions in the art of teaching and the method 
thereof in each school as to him shall seem necessary or 
expedient, so that uniformity in the course of studies and 
method of instruction emplo^'ed shall be secured." 

A careful study of this section of the law con- 
vinced me that my time in each school must not be 
devoted mainly to speech-making. I made up my 
mind that I would visit two schools each day, and 
spend a morning or an afternoon in each; that I 
Avould examine carefully the work of each school, tiy 
to ascertain its wants, and see if I could suirsrest 
some w^ay of relief. I soon found that there was a 
painful want of uniformity in the course of studies of 
the several schools. Some schools had taken up 
twice as many branches as others, and arithmetic 
seemed to be the stopping-point in a majority of 
cases. Many parents reserved the right to dictate 
the branches which their children should study, and 
many teachers regarded their work well done when 



40 GRADUATING SYSTEM FOR COUNTRY SCHOOLS. 

they had given instruction in those branches which 
happened to suit the convenience or caprice of either 
parents or pupils. 

In h)oking to the school law for the settlement of 
the question as to what branches should be studied 
in the public schools of the State, I found the course 
as clearly defined as the course in any college or 
university, and that it was by no means an optional 
course of study. In order to make this matter plain, 
I here present Sect. 11 of the school law of the 
State : — 

''In the primar}^ schools there shall be taught Orthogra- 
pb}^, Reading, Penmanship, Arithmetic, English Grammar, 
Ilistoiy, Geograph}', and such other branches as the Board 
of Education ma}' direct." 

I presented this section of the law in every school 
which I visited, and insisted that the entire course of 
study should be taken up by all the older and more 
advanced pupils. Many teachers suggested that there 
were insurmountable difficulties in the way of such 
an undertaking, among which they named a want of 
necessary books and an indisposition on the part of 
pupils to take up additional branches. The more 
skilful teachers, however, testified that they had no 
difficulty in inducing pupils to take up additional 
studies, no trouble to procure from parents the books 
they needed, and that pupils who had taken up all 
the branches contained in the course of study were 
making better progress in each than were pupils who 



ORIGIN OF THE GRADUATING SYSTEM. 47 

had taken up but half the branches contained in the 
course. I observed that the testimony of these teach- 
ers had great weight with parents and pupils, so I 
presented such testimony wherever I went. I found 
that if I expected to secure uniformity in the course 
of studies in all the schools of the county, as the law 
required, I would have no time to hear recitations; 
so I devoted myself mainly to the work of ascer- 
taining what branches each pupil was pursuing, and 
to the task of aiding teachers in the organization of 
additional classes, and procuring such books as were 
needed. 

I kept a journal in which I aimed to enter all 
items of general interest connected with the work of 
each school. I observed that teachers and pupils 
were all anxious to know whether any person l)eside 
myself would have access to this journal, and whether 
these items would in any way be made public. I 
soon became satisfied that the easiest way to induce 
pupds to take up additional branches, and to influ- 
ence parents to purchase necessary books, w^ould be 
in some w^ay to make pul^lic the work of each school. 
I began first by announcing in each school that I 
would report its vfork in the school which I would 
next visit. I observed from that time forth that 
whenever I entered a school-room I found pupils 
present from the school which I had last visited, and 
I learned that they were there by permission of their 
teacher to hear their school reporteJ, and to compare 
their own work with the work of their neighbors. 



48 GRADUATING SYSTEM FOR COUNTRY SCHOOLS. 

The desire of teachers and pupils and parents to hear 
the reports, and to compare the work of the several 
schools, became so strong that, in order to gratify 
this desire, I held each evening an educational raeet- 
ing in one of the school-houses visited during the 
day. These evening educational meetings became a 
matter of public interest in every part of the county. 
People were not long contented with a knowledge of 
the condition of the schools of their own community, 
but frequently called for reports of schools in other 
sections of the county in Avhich they chanced to have 
acquaintances. I made it a point in each meeting to 
state the number of schools I had up to that time 
visited, and the number in which classes had been 
formed in all the branches ; and in many places I 
was called upon to name the schools in which such 
classes had been formed, and the teacher in charge 
of each. Teachers, pupils, and patrons of schools 
having classes in all the branches came from every 
direction to attend our meetings and hear their 
schools reported. Classes in many of the schools 
were organized in advance of my visits, and I was 
notified of the fact and requested to report them. 
Thinking that I had touched the true key to success 
by making public the work of each school, I pub- 
lished at the end of the school term in our local 
paper, the Morgantoion Post, a list of schools in 
^rhich classes had been formed in all the branches, 
and the name of the teacher in charge of each. This 
county contained at that time seventy-eight country 



ORIGIN OF THE GRADUATING SYSTEM. 49 

schools, and thirty-two of these were reported m the 
published list, the "n>Z/ of honor 1^' Quite a number 
of teachers whose names had not been published, 
informed me, soon aftel- the publication of the list, 
that they did not intend to be left off the roll of 
honor next year. I observed that teachers felt more 
interest in having their names published than pupils 
and patrons felt in having their schools published. 
This convinced me that the most effectual way to 
reach pupils and pitrons of our public schools is, in 
some way, to make public the individual ivork of 
those pupils who are most deserving of praise. Be- 
lie vins^ that it would aid teachers in oriranizinof 
classes and obtaining books, I announced in tho 
county ne\;v^spaper that in the evening educational 
meetings which I proposed to hold while visiting the 
schools of the county the next winter, I would make 
public the names of all pupils who would take up 
the entire course of study. 

In the autumn of 1874, soon after the schools were 
opened, I received word from various directions that 
classes embracinof all the branches h:id been orij^an- 
izecl in nearly every school. I was highly delighted 
with the progress made in this matter, and I came to 
the conclusion that my plan was already a success. 
Soon after this I commenced visiting schools, and 
began to inquire for pupils who had taken up the 
full course of stud}^ intending to enter their names 
in my journal for the purpose of reporting them in 
our educational meetings, when, to my surprise and 



50 GRADUATING SYSTEM FOR COUNTRY SCHOOLS. 

mortification, I found that scarcely any of them had 
taken up more than two studies. One had taken up 
arithmetic and geography, another had taken up 
arithmetic and English grammar, and still another 
arithmetic and history, according as they had " likes 
and dislikes" for these branches. Feelins: that I had 
not yet accomplished my purpose, I next undertook 
to organize in each school a class of advanced pupils 
who would agree to take up all the branches. This 
was thought to bo, as one who entered the class ex- 
pressed it, "no fool of a job"; and yet, by the aid 
of the teachers, I succeeded from day to day in most 
of the schools. In our educational meetings, which 
were held each evening, I reported the names of 
pupils who had entered the classes in each of the 
schools visited during the day, and in other schools 
near by. The relatives and friends of pupils com- 
posing these classes were much pleased with these 
reports, and in most of our meetings the greater part 
of the audience was made up of relatives and tViends. 
Some of our best teachers entertained fears that at 
the close of the school term the special interest would 
cease, and most of the members of these classes 
would backslide, and thus render it necessary for 
us, the next term, to "do our first works." I soon 
became satisfied that these fears were well founded. 
Pupils had entered these classes, supposing that the 
end of the present school term would release them 
from all obligations. Very few of them had made 
up their minds to complete the course of study. In 



ORIGIN OF THE GRADUATING SYSTEM. 51 

order to obviate this difficulty I undertook to organ- 
ize in each school a class of volunteers who would 
agree not only to take uj) the free-school course, but 
to comj)l('te it. 

Pupils very naturally inquired, before giving their 
names as volunteers, "How soon is this work to be 
completed, and who is to judge whether or not it is 
well done?" I told them we would have to trust to 
each class to do this work well, and to do it in a 
reasonable time. I organized two classes upon this 
principle, and in our evening educational meeting I 
reported my plan. I observed, however, that my 
statement of the plan produced no special interest on 
the part of any who w^ere present. Several short 
speeches were made, but none of the speakers re- 
ferred to my plan. It was evident that they could 
sec nothing in it. I myself felt that it was a failure. 

After the meeting adjourned I retired at the house 
of a friend, but I found no rest. I was full of 
tossings to and fro. For the first time in my life 
I regretted that my lot as an educator had been cast 
in the common schools. I said, "Oh, that I were a 
president of a university, a professor in a college, or 
a principal of a high school, where the work of each 
pupil is annually tested by a thorough examination." 
I remembered noticing, not long before, upon the 
wall of a parlor in West Virginia, a diploma belong- 
ing to a young lady, a graduate of the high school 
of Fort AYayne, Indiana, my native State. Then 
the inquiry came into my mind, — if they graduated 



52 GRADUATING SYSTEM FOR COUNTRY SCHOOLS. 

pupils in liirjh schools, why not graduate them in low 
schools? In a moment the darkness fled from my 
mind ; the light flashed, and I almost fancied it was 
day. I felt sure I had made the discovery. I said, 
"We will bring all the plans and appliances from 
the higher schools and apply them to the primary 
schools ; we will have annual examinations and com- 
mencement exercises, and we will grant diplomas and 
form alumni associations." 

Early next morning I entered upon my duties with 
renewed energies, and undertook to organize, by the 
aid of the teacher, in each school a class of volun- 
teers, who would agree not only to take up the entire 
course of study, but to complete it in a given time 
and to pass a public examination in the same. I 
found very few pupils who were advanced flir enough 
to enable them to complete the course during that 
term ; so I proposed that a public examination be 
held by the county superintendent in each district 
(not sub-district) in the county at the end of the 
school term of the next year, and that each pupil 
who should pass such examination creditably would 
receive a handsome diploma or honorary certificate, 
signed by the county superintendent and the teacher 
of the school in which he had completed the course. 
This class was termed the graduating class of 187 G. 
I found, however, that pupils who were willing to 
enter this class were not numerous. Man}^ parents 
expressed their doubts about the propriety of their 
children making such pledges. The teachers, almost 



ORIGIN OF THE GEADUATING SYSTEM!. 5o 

without exception, and the more intelligent people 
gave the plan their hearty co-operation. 

At the ensuing election, held Aug. 13, 1875, I 
was, without opposition, elected county superintend- 
ent. This I regarded not only a compliment to 
myself, but an indorsement of the graduating system 
which I had inauc^urated. 

In the autumn of 1875, as soon as the schools 
were fully in operation, I commenced my visitations, 
taking with me a sample free-school diploma, — a 
handsome certificate, nine by fourteen inches, neatly 
framed, which I exhibited in each school. I found 
that the graduating system was rapidly growing in 
popular favor, so I undertook to organize in each 
school, where there was material for doing so, not 
only a class for 1876, but also a class for 1877. Our 
educational meetings, which were held each evening, 
had, in the mean time, so increased in interest that 
school-houses were insufficient for the accommoda- 
tion of our vast audiences, and trustees of churches 
opened their houses of worship for our acconmioda- 
tion. I held, while visiting that winter, forty-three 
of these meetings, twenty-seven in churches. Numer- 
ous topics connected with popuhir education were 
discussed at these meetings, and addresses were de- 
livered by professors in the University, ministers of 
the gospel, teachers, f.irmers, and mechanics. 

No cue element added more to the interest and 
pleasure of these meetings than the music furnished 
by the young ladies and gentlemen of the several 



54 GRADUATING SYSTEM FOR COUNTRY SCHOOLS. 

communities in the comity. I availed myself each 
evening of the opportunity to report the names of 
those who had entered the classes of 1876 and 1877. 
I proposed to publish these names in the county 
newspaper ; and a spirit of emulation arose between 
the schools of each district, and an equal rivalry be- 
tween the several districts, as to wdiich school in each 
district or which district in the county should excel 
in the number and quality of its graduates. Teach- 
ers, pupils, and patrons of the schools became re- 
cruiting agents to obtain volunteers. The ranks 
were frequently increased by pupils publicly entering 
the classes at our educational meetings, and almost 
every mail brought me letters giving names to be 
added to the classes. 

In addition to the classes of 1876 and 1877, I sug- 
gested that each teacher form two other classes, so 
that each school w^ould have four classes ; and most 
of them did so. Pupils unprepared to enter either 
of these classes composed the preparatory depart- 
ment. One grand result of this classification was 
the effect produced upon pupils who entered the 
graduating classes. They had voluntarily consented 
to do a certain amount of work in a given time, and 
their work would be publicly tested. Every student 
of human nature could anticipate the result. Pupils 
began to count the months and weeks and da3^s in 
which this work was to be accomplished. They 
were found numbering the pages in their history, 
geography, and English grammar, and counting the 



ORIGIN OF THE GRADUATING SYSTEM. 55 

problems in arithmetic, in order to ascertain how 
many pages should be studied, and how many prob- 
lems solved each day, in order to complete these 
studies, and review, before examination da}^. One 
boy said to his comrade, after they had both given 
their names for gradujition, " Now, Tom, we have 
no more time for shooting paper wads at the ceiling 
or flipping beans at the girls." But the efiect of this 
classification was by no means confined to the mem- 
bers of the graduating class. Most of the younger 
pupils caught the example and inspiration of the 
older ones, and they too began to think and talk of 
the time Avhen they would also complete the course 
of study. Government in the school-room seemed 
to take care of itself, giving the teacher full time for 
his lei^fitimate work, teachino'. 

The time for the examination of graduating classes 
began to draw near, and croakers were busy, proph- 
esying that the whole system would prove a failure. 
" Such a thing," they said, " as graduating in country 
schools never has been done and never will " I 
watched anxiously the efiect of these predictions, 
and I was highly gratified to find that teachers and 
pupils were already beyond the region of uncertainty, 
and were only strengthened in their determination to 
make the plan a success. So far were they from 
fearing failure, that they requested me to make the 
examinations thorough and public, and as far as 
possible oral, so that the people could see and hear 
for themselves. 



56 GRADUATING SYSTEM FOR COUNTRY SCHOOLS. 

Ill order to make pul)lic the time and place of 
each examination, I sent to each teacher, school 
officer, and minister of the gospel in the county, 
the following printed postal-card notice of examina- 
tions : — 



Office Sup't of Free Schools of Monongalia County, 
MORGANTOWN, W. Va., Feb. 16, 1876. 

To Teachers and Friends of Free Sdiools : 

The First Annual Examination of the Graduating Classes, for 
the several districts of this county, will be held at the places 
and dates named below : — 

ForGRvNT District, Zoar, Friday, Feb. 25, 1876. 

For Union '' Pierpoiut's, Saturday, Feb. 26. 

For Morgan *' Pleasant Plill, Friday, March 3. 

For Cass • ** Bethel, Saturday, March 4. 

For Ci AY *' Mooresville, Tuesday, March 7. 

For Battelle " West Warren, Thursday, March 9. 

For Clinton " Goshen, Saturday, March 11. 

Each examination will commence promptly at 10 a. m., and 
continue during the day. 

Every pupil should have a pencil and several sheets of fools- 
cap paper. 

At night the Graduating Class from each school will be repre- 
sented by an Oration, Essay, Declamation, or Select Keading 
from one of its members. The granting of Diplomas, and an 
Address to the Graduating Classes, by some experienced educator^ 
will close the exercises. 

Friends of Popu'ar Education are invited to be present. We 
expect the best music, vocal and instrumental, both day and 
night, which each district can produce. 

Basket dinners, and suppers too, will be in order. 

Very truly yours, 

A. L. WADE, Coxmty Supt. 



ORIGIN OF THE GRADUATING SYSTEM. 57 

I also sent copies of these card-notices to many of 
the public papers, and to all the county suponntcnd- 
ents of the State. The coming examinations were, 
therefore, published in all the schools of the county, 
announced from the pulpit, and noticed by the press. 
Great was the desire of the public to know the names 
of those who w^ere expected to graduate at each 
place named in the notice ; and when I published in 
the local paper of the county, the week previous to 
the first examination, a list of names of the graduat- 
ing classes for the following week, and announced 
that I would continue this each Aveek, until all the 
classes would be published, copies of the paper con- 
taining these lists were looked for with unusual 
interest, by parents and pupils, teachers and school 
officers, and by all who were interested in the educa- 
tional work. 

Unwilling to assume the responsibility of conduct- 
ing these examinations without aid, I secured the 
services of Prof. H. L. Cox, principal of Morgan- 
town Graded School ; Prof. W. E. Wh:te, late State 
Superintendent of Free Schools of West Virginia ; 
and Profs. Lyon, Purinton, and Owen, of AVest Vir- 
ginia University. I gave notice through the press, 
that one or more of these professors would be present 
to aid me in each examination, and to deliver an 
appropriate address in the evening. 

Although most parents were well pleased with the 
thought of having their children graduate, I observed, 
as the time for examination drew near, an increasing 
anxiety on the part of these parents about the final 



58 GRADUATING SYSTEM FOR COUNTRY SCHOOLS. 

result. I received numerous letters, was occasionally 
called upon, and sometimes sent for, by parents who 
had children in the ofraduatino: classes. One fortu- 
nate feature connected with this anxiety was, that 
these parents, almost without exception, were unwill- 
ing to let their children know that they had any fears 
as to their final success in the examination. 

An incident which took place a short time pre- 
vious to the first examination will serve, in some 
degree, to illustrate the depth of parental feeling in 
this matter. Eiding on horseback along a country 
road, I was passing a farm-house, when the proprie- 
tor, a man whom 1 knew very well, gave me a signal 
which indicated that he wished me to come to the 
house. On entering the door, I saw, in the manner 
of the man and his wife, unmistakable signs of great 
anxiety. Without any of the usual formalities, the 
man began : " The children are all at school ; wife 
and I have been wanting to see you for some time. 
You have got our daughter into this graduating class, 
and sJie seems to think that it is all very nice. Some 
people say that the object is to disgrace the children 
in the presence of a lot of college professors ; and 
wife and I have hardly slept any for a week. Our 
dauorhter knows nothino: about how anxious we are." 
Eising from his seat and approaching me, as I sat 
in his own house, without any sign of anger, but 
with deep feeling, pointing his forefinger at me, he 
said, "My daughter is a good girl, and she studies 
hard : I will go with her to the examination, and I 
intend to see that she is not abused." 



LECTURE V. i 

TRIALS AND TRIUMPHS OF THE GRADUATING SYSTEM 

The 25th of February, 1876,— the day which 
was to decide whether graduation in country schools 
should be a success or a faihu'c, — dawned beautiful 
and bris^ht. I was well aware that if the first exami- 
nation should bo a failure, it would be impossible, in 
this county, to rally a class at any subsequent time ; 
and I had felt a deep anxiety for this day to be fair. 
When the sun rose, the sky was clear, the air balmy 
and mild as a May morning. Full of hope, I was 
on my way to the appointed place, when I met a 
messenger who hurriedly handed me a letter. I saw, 
on opening it, that it was from one of the foremost 
teachers of the district in which the examination 
would be held. It was a short note, and I here pre- 
sent it in full : — 

Laurel Point, Feb. 25, 1876. 
A. L. Wade, 

County Superintendent of Schools. 

My Dear Sir, — A report is in circulation that you. will 
demand a fee of five dollars for each diploma granted, and 
that twenty-five cents will be charged each person as admis- 
sion to Prof- White's evening lecture I fear that this report 



60 GRADUATING SYSTEM FOR COUNTRY SCHOOLS. 

will fiffect the attendance, and I hope you will at once cor- 
rect it, tlirough the papers Yours in haste, 

Geoege Barb. 

While I had all confidence in the sincerity of the 
writer, I coLdd not believe that intelligent people 
would credit the report; and yet my anxiety was, 1 
think, little less than that felt by Cyrus W. Field 
when the " Great Eastern " left the shore to lay the 
Atlantic cable. On nearing the church in which the 
examination was to be held, great was my gratifica- 
tion when I saw both sides of the road literally lined 
with horses and carriages, and the enclosure about the 
church almost filled with people. On entering the 
door I found the house already full ; and as I passed 
down the aisle toward the pulpit, an excellent choir, 
accompanied l^y a good organ, began to sing an 
appropriate song. Every teacher of the district was 
present, and a graduating class of fifty was seated in 
a suitable place. Professor Cox, my predecessor in 
office, a man of large experience and superior skill 
in public examinations, who had promised to aid me 
upon this occasion, was present, ready to perform 
his part. Professor Purinton, of West Virginia Uni- 
versity, was elected secretary, and was furnished 
with a blank book, for the purpose of making a 
permanent record of the proceedings. 

To give a detailed account of the work of this day 
and of the evening would be but a repetition of the 
spirit of the examination described in my last lecture. 
In order, however, to show the principal points of in- 



TEIALS AND TEIUMPHS. 61 

terest in this and the subsequent examinations which 
had been announced, I here present an account copied 
from my official report for that year. The report 
says : — 

" These district examinations of graduating classes 
were held in churches in the following order : — 

" Grant District^ at Zoar Baptist Church, on Fri- 
day, Feb. 25, 1876. This district has thirteen 
schools, and all the teachers were present. The 
printed roll (of volunteers for graduation), number- 
ing sixty-one, was called, and fifty members re- 
sponded. The residue, having failed to complete the 
course, were transferred to the class of 1877. The 
examination was conducted by the county superin- 
tendent, assisted by Professor H. L. Cox, principal 
of Morgantown Graded School. In the evening 
addresses were made by Professor W. R. White, 
ex-State Superintendent of Free Schools of West 
Virginia, and Professor D. B. Purinton, of West 
Virginia University. 

" Union District^ at Peirpoint's Methodist Episco- 
pal Church, Saturday, Feb. 26, 1876. This district 
has eight schools, and all the teachers were present. 
The roll, numbering fifty, was called, and thirty- 
eight responded. The examination was conducted 
by the county superintendent, assisted by Professor 
F. S. Lyon, of West Virginia University, and Pro- 
fessor H. L. Cox. Addresses were delivered in the 
evening by Professors White, Lj^on, and Purinton. 

^^ Morgan District, at Pleasant Hill Baptist Church, 



62 GRADUATING SYSTEM FOR COUNTRY SCHOOLS. 

Friday, March 3, 1876. This district has eight 
schools, and all the teachers were present. The 
roll, numbering twenty-one, was called, and nine- 
teen responded. Professor White assisted the coun- 
ty superintendent in conducting the examination. 
Addresses in the evening by Professors Cox, White, 
Purinton, and Owen. 

'^ Cass District, at Bethel Methodist Episcopal 
Church, on Saturday, March 4, 1876. This district 
contains eight schools, and all the teachers were 
present except two, and these two were non-resi- 
dents. The roll, numbering thirty, was called, and 
twenty-one responded. Professor AVhite assisted 
the county superintendent in conducting the exami- 
nation, and in the evening delivered an address. 

" Clay District, at Valley Chapel Christian Church, 
on Tuesday, March 7, 1876. This district contains 
thirteen schools, and all the teachers were present 
except one, — a resident of this county. The roll of 
twenty -three was called, and seventeen answered. 
Professor Lyon assisted the county superintendent 
in the examination. In the evening addresses Avere 
made by Professor Lyon and Hon. William Price. 

''Batttlle District, at West Vfarren Baptist Church, 
on Thursday, March 9, 1876. This district has thir- 
teen schools, and all the teachers were present 
except two, — one a resident of this county and the 
other a non-resident. The roll, numbering thii-ty- 
four, was called, and twenty-four responded ; but 
four of these withdrew from the class, not being 



TRIALS AND TKIIBIPHS. 63 

fully prepared in all the branches of the course. 
One teacher who was present — a non-resident — 
declined to take any part in the work of deciding 
who were entitled to diplomas. Professor Lyon 
assisted the superintendent in conducting the exami- 
nation, and in the evening addressed the audience. 

" Clinton Dhiricl^ at Goshen Baptist Church, on 
Saturday, March 11, 1876. This district contains 
fourteen schools, and all the teachers were present. 
The roll, numbering forty-two, was called, and thirty- 
one answered. Professor L^^on assisted the county 
superintendent in conducting the examination. In 
the evening addresses were made by Professors 
Lyon, Owen, and Purinton. 

'■ The county superintendent, each evening, after 
the addresses were ended, in the pi'esence of the 
audience, delivered to each member of the class who 
was by the teachers of the district adjudged worthy 
of the same, a Diploma or Honorary Certificate, 
9 X 14 inches, duly signed as heretofore set forth ; 
which, when framed, is an ornament to a parlor and 
an honor to the holder. 

''Two hundred and sixty-one pupils entered the 
class of 1876, and of this number, one hundred and 
ninety-six completed the course and obtained diplo- 
mas." 

So far as I could learn, not a single pupil who had 
undertaken to complete the course of study for grad- 
uation stayed away from the examination from fear 
of failure. With the exception of a few who were 



64 GRADUATING SYSTEM FOR COUNTRY SCHOOLS. 

unable to attend, all who were prepared were present. 
Those who were unable to graduate in 1876 were 
transferred to the class of 1877. 

As an indication of the interest w^hich the teachers 
took in these examinations, I may refer to the fact 
which appears in the report I have given ; viz., only 
live teachers were marked absent. 

In order that 1 may, in some degree, give an idea 
of the interest which the masses manifested in these 
examinations, I quote further from my report of that 
year : — 

" With a single exception, the largest churches in 
the several districts were insufficient to accommodate, 
even during the day, the vast numbers who came to 
witness the examinations, i^nd these were not dis- 
interested spectators ; they were our most intelligent 
people, — the cream of society, — men and women 
who had sons or daughters or grandchildren or 
friends in the class, in whom they were deeply 
interested." 

In order to show the thorousrhness of these exami- 
nations, the success of pupils in passing through 
them, and the aims of those who graduated, I quote 
once more from my report : — 

" These examinations were no ' child's play ' ; they 
w^erc intended to test the knowledge of each pupil in 
the free-school branches ; and yet, with a very Ibw ex- 
ceptions, the members of the several classes displayed 
a coolness, a courage, and a knowledge of the common 
branches which many of our teachers do not possess. 



TRIALS AND TRIUMPHS. 65 

But they do not expect to cease to study because 
they have graduated in the primary branches. They 
expect to work to obtain a, more thorough knowledge 
of these branches, and many of them intend to take 
up a higher course of study." 

You will please bear in mind that the quotations 
which I have made form a part of an official report, 
l)repared when the facts were fresh in memory, — 
prepared for circulation among the very people who 
were familiar with these ^icts. 

As soon as the last examination of graduating 
classes was ended, parents and pupils, teachers and 
school officers, began to inquire how soon the cata- 
logue of the schools of the county would bo pub- 
lished. Reports of these examinations had been 
published from time to time in the local paper of 
the county, and they had been read with interest, 
but they were scattered through several editions of 
the paper, — difficult to find for reference ; and the 
information which they gave, though good as far as 
it went, was incomplete, and by no means met the 
want that was felt in every family. A complete 
report, in cheap and convenient form, by the aid of 
which each family could compare intelh'gently the 
work of the several schools of the countj^, seemed 
to be essential. With a view of publishing such a 
pamphlet, I had, on the day of each examination, 
placed in the hands of each teacher who was present 
the following : — 



G6 



GRADUATING SYSTEM FOR COUXTRY SCHOOLS. 



Form of Eeport for Catalogue. 

REPOKT OF School, 

Sub^^zstrict No., district of..... 

■^ ) 

For the Terr/i ending day of. 1878 

Teacher. 



Number of youths entitled to attend . . '. 

Number of youths in attendance 

Number of youths entitled to attend, but not in attendance 

Daily average attendance 

Daily per cent of attendance of all entitled to attend 

Branches taught and number of pupils studying each branch, 
as follows : — 



Penmanship . 
Reading . , 
Orthography . 



History 

English Grammar 

Geography 

Written Arithmetic 

Mental Arithmetic . . 

igeS^ (Name any other classes, if any.) 

The following pupils graduated in 187G : 



CLASS FOR 1877. 








CLASS FOR 1878. 






CLASS FOR 1879. 





lagi-ee to pay member of the 

Publishing Committee of District, 

Dollar and Cents for Copies 

of the First Annual Catalogue of the Free Schools of Monongalia County — 
being ten cents per copy — at the time they are delivered to me. 

-•' Teacher. 



TRIALS AND TRIIBIPHS. 67 

The teachers of each district, on the day of exami- 
nation of graduating classes, had chosen from their 
own body one member of the Committee on Publica- 
tion of the Cataloofue. 

This committee met at the Court House on the 
twenty-sixth day of June, 1876, having reports from 
most of the schools, and awarded the contract for 
publishing the First Annual Catalogue to the editors 
of the Morgantown " Post " ; six hundred copies for 
$60. A little over $50 had been subscribed, and the 
residue was paid by the county superintendent. A 
few teachers had failed to till up and return their 
reports, and in such cases abstracts were taken from 
the superintendent's journal. 

About the first of September, 1876, we published 
the First Annual Catalogue of the Free Schools of 
JMonongalia County, wdiich embraced the annual re- 
port of the county superintendent, and a report from 
every school in the county. This catalogue, w^hich 
was a 32 mo pamphlet of ninety-six pages, was pur- 
chased of teachers by parents and pupils, and read 
and studied by both 3^oung and old, until almost 
every one became familiar with the educational w^ork 
of the whole county. No other single book, except 
the Bible, seemed to present so many points of interest 
to the people of every community in the county. 
The per cent of attendance, which is clearly presented 
on every page, was carjefully studied by teachers and 
school officers. Parents and pupils having relatives 
and acquaintances residing in remote parts of the 



68 GRiU)UATINa SYSTEM FOR COUNTRY SCHOOLS. 

county looked carefully in the catalogue to see 
whether the names of their cousins and friends were 
to be found in any of the classes. 1 he individual 
work of each teacher, as presented in the catalogue, 
indicated, in a good degree, his worth, and was care- 
fully considered by those who wished to employ pub- 
lic instructors. Many other points of interest 
connected w^ith this catalogue I must pass unnoticed. 

While the masses were generally well pleased 
with the work of the graduating system, there were 
some persons who had not ceased to prophesy that 
the plan would yet be a failure. " These examina- 
tions," they said, "were successful because the sys- 
tem was then new ; but the excitement will die away 
within the year, and it will be impossible to repeat 
them. These graduates," they said, " are sure in the 
end to be worsted, because they will certainly cease 
to study, as it is generally understood that gradua- 
tion means that they have learned all." 

In the autumn of 1876, as soon as the schools 
were fully at work, I commenced my annual visits. 
I was gratified to find the predictions that those who 
had graduated would cease to study were false. I 
found about ninety per cent of these alumni in 
school, either as teachers or pupils, many of them 
pursuing studies beyond the primary branches. 

Desiring to give the young people of the county 
the hiirhest mental training that our common schools 
can po-sibly afibrd, I introduced a plan v/hich gave 
a large number ot^ the graduates the privilege of 



TRIALS AND TRIUMPHS. 69 

writing for the press. Another newspaper, called 
the "New Dominion," had hitely been started at the 
county seat. We now had papers representing the 
mterests of the twoleadmg political parties, and both 
papers were warmly interested in the educational 
work. At each of our educational mass meetings, 
held each evening, a correspondent for each of our 
county papers was chosen. These correspondents 
were usually selected from the alumni of the schools 
visited during the da}^ and generally consisted of a 
lady and a gentleman. Each correspondent was 
expected to furnish the paper Avhich he represented 
a condensed account of the proceedings of the mcet- 
in<x, and a sketch of the educational work of the com- 
munity in which it was held. Each issue of our 
county papers was anxiously looked for, especially 
by friends of these correspondents and by the schools 
which they represented. Thus, in a single school 
term, nearly one hundred of our young people com- 
menced the high work of writing for the public 
papers. 

I had, at the several examinations of graduating 
classes held at the end of the previous term, an- 
nounced that some time within the next school year 
an alumni association would be organized, and an 
entertainment would be given, in each district, by 
those who had £;raduated. I had stated that the 
exercises at these alumni meetings would consist of 
original and select orations, essays, and select read- 
ings ; and I had requested the young people to make 



70 GRADUATING SYSTEM FOR COUNTRY SCHOOLS. 

preparation for these public performances. I had 
further announced that the officers of each associa- 
tion would be chosen by ballot, from and by the 
members of its own body, and that each would also 
elect from among its members a gentleman to 
deliver an oration and a lady to read an essay at the 
next annual examination of graduating classes in the 
district. 

The average age of those who had graduated in 
the county was a little less than sixteen years ; and 
it was suggested by some that alumni associations 
could not be made a success if managed by officers 
so young in years, and that it would probably be 
better to choose these officers from the ranks of citi- 
zens. Other persons prophesied that, when the 
time for holding these akimni meetings should come, 
there would be no difference of opinion about the 
election of officers ; for, as thc}^ believed, such meet- 
ings would never be held, — nobody would make 
prei)aration for them, and nobody Vv^ould attend 
them. 1 was well aware, however, that the young- 
people were making thorough preparation, and that 
many of the young men w^ere making themselves 
familiar with rules of order for the government of 
deliberative bodies. 

In order to make public the time and place of 
each meeting, I sent to each teacher and school 
officer of the county, and to many of the older mem- 
bers of the alumni, the following printed postal-card 
notice of alumni meetings : — - 



TEIALS AND TRIUMPHS. 71 



Office Sup't Free Schools of Monongalia Co., 
MoRGANTOWX, W. Va., Jan. 8, 1877. 

To Teachers and Friends of Free Schools : 

The First Aunual Meeting of the Alumni of the Free Schools 
of the several districts of this County will be held in the follow- 
ing churches and at the dates named below : — 

For Grant District, Saturday, Jan. 13, at Cold Spring. 

For Morgan District, Friday, Jan. 19, at Drummond Chapel. 

For Cass District, Saturday, Jan. 20, at Cassville. 

For Battelle District, Friday, Jan. 26, at Union. 

For Clay District, Saturday, Jan. 27, at Mt. Ilermon. 

For Union District, Friday, Feb. 2, at Peirpoint's. 

For Clinton District, Saturday, Feb. 3, at Goshen. 

The exercises will commence at half past six o'clock, and will 
consist of Original and Select Orations, Essays, and, Select 
Readings. 

Teachers will please meet as early as 5 p. m., to prepare a 
programme for the evening We expect the best music — vocal 
and instrumental — which each district can produce Each 
member of the Class of 1876 will be entitled to take part in the 
exercises in the district in which he graduated. 

Friends of Free Schools are invited to be present. 

A. L. WADE, 

County Sup't. 



In order to show the result of this attempt to or- 
ganize these associations, I quote from my official 
report of that year : — 

"An alumni association was oro^anizecl in each 
district in the county. Each association elected by 
ballot, from its own body, president, vice-president, 
and secretary. A gentleman to deliver an oration, 
and a lady to read an essay at the next annual dis- 



72 GRADUATING SYSTEM FOR COUNTRY SCHOOLS. 

Irict examination and commencement exercises, were 
also chosen by each association. 

" No public meetings pertaining to our free-school 
work have elicited more interest or attracted larger 
crowds. More than eight}^ members of the class of 
1876 embraced the opportunity to speak and read in 
the presence of large audiences. 

" The self-possession shown by the members of the 
various classes in their performances, and in the elec- 
tion of officers, elicited miiversal commendation. 
The privilege of addressing popular assemblages, and 
reading to full houses, is not often given to the youth 
who attend our free schools. It is claimed by 
some that the ability to speak and read in pul)lic is 
possessed in a high degree by but few persons. If 
this be true, it is the more important that the schools 
in which the mass'^s are educated, give opportunity 
for the development of this gift wherever it ex- 
ists. 

" The graduating class of 1877 has been added to 
the alumni, and will take part in the several annual 
meetings, which will be held at the call of the officers 
of each district. Due notice of the time and place of 
each will be given." 

The time for holding our second annual exam- 
inations of graduating classes was now at hand. 
These were held, as in the preceding year, in seven 
churches ; the first on the 24th of February and 
the last on the 17th of March, 1877. In order to 
show the result of these examinations and of the 



TRIALS AND TRIUMPHS. 73 

work of the year, I quote from my official re- 
port : — 

" It will be seen from the reports of district exam- 
inations that one hundred and ten pupils completed 
tJie course^ and obtained diplomas. These were 
granted by the teachers present, oma scale from one 
to ten, — five being medium and ten excellent. Xo 
pupil graduated whose average grade was not above 
seven. It was not expected that the class in the 
county this year would be as large as it was last year, 
as we had last year the cream produced by several 
years' work. Many persons at the close of the exam- 
inations in 1876 were of the opinion, tiiat in order to 
have graduates in 1877, it would be necessary to use 
skimmed milk. Many of these, however, after wit- 
nessing the examinations of the classes of 1877, 
agree that the graduates of this year are ricJter than 
last. 

"The attendance upon these examinations, both day 
and night, and the interest manifested by the masses 
in them, were quite equal to last year. The same 
may be said of our educational meetings, wdiich w^ere 
held each evening while I was visiting schools. I 
held in the year, including district alumni meetings 
and examinations, fifty-two educational mass meet- 
ings in the county, forty-two in churches, and ten in 
school-houses." 

Rev. J. R. Thompson, wdio had lately been 
elected president of West Virginia University, 
heartily indorsed the graduating system, made the 



74 GRADUATING SYSTEM FOR COUNTRY SCHOOLS. 

tour of the county, was present at most of our 
second annual examinations of graduating classes, 
and delivered evening addresses. Several other 
educators took part in these exercises, prominent 
among whom I may name Prof. F. H. Crago, prin- 
cipal of Moundsville Graded and Normal Schools. 
Mr. N. N. Hoffman, one of the editors of the 
Morgantown " Post," accompanied President Thomp- 
son on his trip through the county. The presence 
of a journalist increased, in no small degree, the 
inspiration, upon each occasion. His editorial re- 
ports of examinations and evening exercises were 
read with interest by the people, and were copied by 
the leading papers of the State. 

The Second Annual Catalogue of the Free Schools 
of Monongalia County was published about the 1st 
of September, 1877. Copies of this catalogue were 
sent to county superintendents thi'oughout the State, 
and to many of the public papers. 

In the autumn of 1877, when I began my annual 
visits, I found that close observers believed the 
severest trials of the graduating system were ended, 
and that its triumph, throughout the county, Avas 
generally conceded. I found, from the discussions 
in our evening educational mass meetings, that 
teachers and patrons were thinking on a higher 
plane than heretofore. The need of teachers thor- 
oughly trained for their work, the necessity for se- 
curing a full attendance upon the schools, and the 
importance of giving the masses a better education 



TRIALS AXD TEIUMPHS. 75 

and a broader culture, were subjects which seemed 
to occupy uppermost places in the public miod. 

The second annual meetings of the alumni were 
favored with audiences quite equal to those of last 
year, and the exercises indicated a good degree of 
reading and of research on the part of the per- 
formers. 

We were now nearing the time for holding our 
third annual examinations of the graduating classes, 
and President 1 hompson again agreed to make the 
tour of the county. Mr. J. E. Fleming, one of the 
editors of the Morgantown "New Dominion," gave 
notice that he would accompany President Thompson ; 
and Mr. N. N. Hoffman, of the Morgantown " Post," 
who had attended most of the exercises of the pre- 
ceding year, again arranged to be present at a part 
of the examinations. 

Grcorge W. Atkinson, Esq., editor of the Wheel- 
ing " Standard " ( daily and weekly) , who had himself 
been a teacher, and who was already a warm advo- 
cate of the graduating system, announced his inten- 
tion to be present at several of our examinations, in 
order that he might carefully study the character and 
work of the system for the purpose of presenting it 
to the public. 

The "Standard" of March 4, 1878, contains a 
leading editorial, in which Mr. Atkinson makes his 
report and presents his conclusions. As his article 
is too long to be presented in full, I make the fol- 
lowing extracts : — 



76 GRADUATING SYSTEM FOR COUNTRY SCHOOLS. 

" At the instance of County Superintendent Wade, 
of Monongalia, we made a tour last week of a por- 
tion of that county, attending what Mr. Wade calls 
his annual public examinations ; and such crowds of 
people we have never seen assembled, even at barbe- 
cues during political campaigns. Mr. Wade has 
thoroughly systematized the schools of his county, 
and his plan is simply this : The pupils of every 
school in the county are arranged in classes after 
the fashion of colleges and universities, and every 
year a greater or less number of students graduate 
from every school in the county. The commence- 
ment, or graduating exercises, are held in each dis- 
trict, and all the sch(tbls from the sub-districts have 
their graduating pupils present at some central point 
in the district Avhere the examination takes place ; 
and those who pass creditable public examinations 
receive diplomas which certify that the holders have 
taken the course of study laid down in the school 
law of the State, and have passed a pul)lic examina- 
tion upon the studies thus laid down in *the law. 
The parents and immediate relatives of the members 
of the graduating class never fail to be present dur- 
ing the entire examination, and every parent is anx- 
ious for his or her child to be most successful. 

" The examinations begin at 10 A. m. and usually 
continue until 5 p. m. , giving one hour for dinner. 
Then, in the evening, addresses upon some educa- 
tional topic are delivered by gentlemen whom Mr. 
\Vade never fails to have on hand to interest and to 
instruct the people. 



TRIALS AND TRIUMPHS. 77 

"We cannot commend Mr. Wade's plan too highly. 
It is just the thing to bring our public schools up to 
the standard of usefulness and respectability which 
they were intended by the authors of the law to be. 
It is a common-sense plan, and wherever it has been 
introduced it has worked like a charm. The fact 
that it awakens an interest on the part of the people 
is of itself sufficient to commend it to the Superin- 
tendent of Public Instruction, if it possessed no other 
advantages. But it does possess other advantages : — 

" First, it classifies the studies laid down in the law 
to be taught in our public schools. 

" Second, it induces pupils to go through the entire 
course of study, which a great many w ould otherwise 
not do. 

" Third, it arouses the ambition of the student to 
excel. It is really surprising to see how determined 
each boy and girl is to he the flower of the class, or 
the cream of the class, as Mr. AYade terms it. 

" Fourth, it has a tendency to increase the attend- 
ance at school ; for it is only reasonable to conclude 
that the more people are interested in education, 
the more they will be stimulated to send their chil- 
dren to school. 

" After havino^ witnessed the entire workinijs of the 
system inaugurated by Mr. Wade, we are now more 
than ever in favor of it, and sincerely hope that our 
State Superintendent will make it a part of his next 
report to the Legislature, asking its adoption." 

The Third Annual Catalogue of the Free Schools of 



78 GRADUATING SYSTEM FOR COUNTRY SCHOOLS. 

Monongalia County, which was pul^lished about the 
first of September, 1878, showed that eighty-eight 
pupils had graduated, and that fifty evening edu- 
cational meetings — thirty-six in churches and four- 
teen in school-houses — hud been held wdthin the 
year. 

In the fall of 187 S, about the time I was ready to 
begin visiting schools, I received numerous notes 
from citizens residing in sundry parts of the county, 
stating that the patrons of each school wished to be 
present at the time of my regular visit, and that they 
w^ould be pleased if I could notify the parents as well 
as the teacher of the time when I w^ould visit each 
school. They wished to be present to see for them- 
selves tlie work of their school, and to aid in collect- 
ing facts for the superintendent's evening report. 
In order to gratify these requests with the least possi- 
ble labor on my part, I concluded to notify the pa- 
trons of each school through the teacher. I gave 
each teacher timely notice of my coming, by a 
printed postal card which required but little labor to 
fill the blanks. I here present a card notice of super- 
intendent's visit : — 

Office of Sup't of Free Schools of Monongalia County, 

MORGANTOWN, W. VA. 

COUNTY SUPERINTENDENT'S WORK. 

I expect to visit the school at 

school-house, on the day of 

^t about o'clock, m., 

to remain until m. 



TRIALS AKD TRIUIVIPHS. 79 

Please have a full attendance of pupils, and try to have the 
trustees and patrons of j- our school present. 

Please make a list of names of pupils entitled to attend, but 
not in attendance, and state, so far as you can, the cause of the 
non-attendance of each. State also the daily average attend- 
ance, and the daily per cent of attendance. 

Will you please organize the graduating classes for at least 
four years, if they are not already organized? 

I Trill hold an Educational Meetmg at at 

night. 

Please allow me to depend upon you and 

to announce it and to make necessary arrangements for the meet- 
ing Let us have the best music your community can produce. 

A L. WADE, 
County Superintendent. 

I generally found, upon reaching each school, a 
house well filled, embracing not only pupils, but 
patrons ; not only fathers but mothers, each parent 
anxious to see how the work of his child would com- 
pare with the work of other children of like age and 
opportunities. I found, almost without exception, 
that parents who Avere present were ready either to 
o'ive a reason for the absence of children who were 
not in attendance, or they were willing to aid the 
teacher in his efforts to bring in these delinquents* 
Almost every school-room was made home-like by 
the presence of beautiful pictures and pure mottoes, 
and by the sweet strains of music. Most of the 
teachers regarded themselves, in a degree, responsi- 
ble for the health and happiness of their pupils, and 
were conforming to the laws of life, by giving close 
attention to warming and ventilating their school- 
rooms. Before dismissin^i; for the noon exercises, in 



80 GRADUATING SYSTEM FOR COUNTRY SCHOOLS. 

many schools, dinner was eaten with order and deco- 
rum, as in a well-regulated ftunily. The testimony 
of our best teachers proved that the time which was 
given to culture greatly increased the pupil's power 
to learn, and made him more thorough in all the 
branches which he studied. 

The third annual meetings of the alumni, which 
were held during the winter, were to the first and 
second annual meetings, w^hat the superlative degree 
in English grammar is to the positive and compara- 
tive degrees. 

The time for holding our fourth annual examina- 
tions of graduating classes was now near at hand. 
In accordance with my purposes, announced the pre- 
ceding winter, this year would end my official work 
in the schools of Monongalia County, and I desired 
to see the graduating system thoroughly tested under 
circumstances which would surround it in a county 
where there was neither a college nor a university. 

After consulting President Thompson, I secured 
speakers, for our commencement exercises, entirely 
outside of the university, most of them from a class 
that may be found in any county, — the Christian 
ministry ; and the result proved that under these 
speakers the public interest was undiminished. 
Eighty-two pupils graduated in the year ending 
Aug. 31, 1879, making in all, since the system of 
graduation was introduced in 1876, four hundred and 
seventy-one pupils who have graduated in the com- 
mon-school branches in this county. 



TRIALS AXD TEIU3IPHS. 81 

As an indication of the culture and intelligence of 
the teachers of this county, I may be permitted to 
refer to the fact, that my last annual report shows 
that of ninety-two teachers emplo^^ed, eighty-three 
were subscribers to some educational journal. The 
editor of the "Xational Journal of Education," Bos- 
ton, in referring to this fact says, " AVe fear that no 
county in Xew England could make so good a show- 
ing." This in itself is proof that the graduating sys- 
tem is a success in the training of teachers. 

As a proof that the people were not weary, after 
four years' trial, of the work of the graduating sys- 
tem, I may refer to the fact, that my last annual 
report shows that we held during the year fifty-three 
evening educational mass meetings, — thirty-seven of 
them in churches, and sixteen in school-houses. 

In presenting the "trials and triumphs of the 
graduating system," I have intentionally confined 
m3^self to the county which gave birth to the system. 
In my next lecture, I propose to speak of the success 
of this system in several counties, and in difierent 
States. 

In conclusion, I can present no bettjer proof of the 
triumphs of this system, than the following extract 
from an editorial written by Rev. J. R. Thompson, 
president of West Virginia University, and editor 
of " West Virginia (Weeklj^) Journal of Education." 
In the issue of Dec. 4, 1878, of that journal, in 
speaking of the graduating system, the editor 
says : — 



82 GRADUATING SYSTEM FOR COUNTRY SCHOOLS. 

"It has indeed produced in Monongalia County, 
and is destined to produce all over the State of West 
Virginia, an educational revival. It is safe, to saj 
that no subject so interests the people of Monongalia 
County to-day as the education of their sons and 
daughters. They talk about that more than any- 
thing else. No subject presents such charms as that 
of education, and lars^er crowds can be 2:athered to 
witness the annual examinations in the several dis- 
tricts than can be called together by the most elo- 
quent preacher or the most popular political orators. 
The writer of this article has accompanied Superin- 
tendent Wade twice through the county on the 
occasion of these examinations, and he has marvelled 
again and again at the deep and al)iding interest of 
the people in the school work. They come early to 
the house in which the examination is being held, 
they come in all kinds of disagreeable weather, they 
come from three, four, or fiv^e, and sometimes ten 
miles. Their interest never flails throusrh the entire 
day ; they remain until eleven and sometimes twelve 
o'clock at night, and they go away as from half-fin- 
ished* feasts, Avith appetites keen as ever for mind- 
food, affectionately and enthusiastically devoted to 
the schools of the people. 

" We are among those who believe that it is possi- 
ble for this State to have a prosperous, honorable, 
influential future, but we are quite confident of the 
truth of the statement that this future is possible 
only by the general education of the people ; and 



TRIALS AND TPJUIVIPHS. 83 

we are sure that no better plan has thus far been 
devised to secure this very desirable end than the 
introduction into the public schools, by efficient 
county superintendents, of this system of gradua- 
tion. Let it be tried." 



LECTUEE VI. 

GROWTH OF THE GRADUATING SYSTEM, AND OFFI- 
CIAL TESTIMONY OF THOSE WHO HAVE TRIED IT. 

The graduating system for country schools is still 
in its infancy ; its work has been tested in but few 
counties ; and official reports of its operations are 
not numerous. I shall therefore, in this lecture, 
present all the official testimony which I have been 
able to collect upon this subject. This testimony is 
taken from the pu1:)lished reports of the general 
superintendents of public instruction of three several 
States, into which the system has been introduced, 
viz., West Virginia, Pennsylvania, and New Jersey. 
I am aware that it has very recently been intro- 
duced into sundry counties of several States where 
no official reports have since been published. I 
learn from reliable sources that its work in these 
counties is quite satisfactory, but I propose at pres- 
ent to confine myself to such counties as have pub- 
lished official reports of its operations. 

It is more than likely that I have overlooked some 
reports which have been published; but this, if true, 
will in no way weaken the testimony which I have 
collected. Some of these official reports were made 



GEOWTH OF THE SYSTEM. 85 

by men who, although working on a kindred system, 
knew nothinsr of each other. It will be found that 
these official reports, coming from officers separated 
from each other, run in the same channel ; which 
fact of itself woiikl give weight to their testimony, 
before either judge or jury, in any court of justice. 
But before introducing any testimony, I desire to 
say something of the causes which led to the intro- 
duction of this system into several counties of West 
Virginia. 

The great educational revival produced by the 
introduction of the graduating system into the 
primary free schools of JNIonongalia County, West 
Virginia, ivas not long confined to that county. The 
success which attended the system was, from time 
to time, noticed by the local papers of the several 
counties and by the leading journals of the State. 
The propriety of its universal adoption in the free 
schools of West Virginia was freely and fully dis- 
cussed by the public press and by the leading educa- 
tors of the State. As an indication of the unanimity 
of sentiment upon this subject, I present an official 
copy of the 

ACTION OF THE STATE TEACHERS' ASSOCIATION OF 

w^EST vmemiA. 

At the State Teachers' Association held at Mar- 
tinsburg, W. Va., August 28, 29, and 30, 1877, a res- 
olution was presented by Professor E. Bonar, of the 
Moundsville Graded School, and amended by Profes- 



86 GRADUATING SYSTEM FOR COUNTRY SCHOOLS. 

sor J. McMurran, of the Shepherdstown Normal 
School, which amendment was adopted by the Asso- 
ciation, and reads as follows ; — 

" Resolved^ That the system introduced into the free 
schools of Monongalia County by Superintendent A. L. 
Wade, providing for grading schools, holding district exami- 
nations, and granting di^Dlomas to pupils who complete the 
free-school branches, be recommended to county superintend- 
ents throughout West Virginia for their adoption. 

"Attest: T. Makcelltjs Marshall, 

" Sec. State Teachers' A^s'n.'' 

Some time after the adoption of the above resolu- 
tion, Hon. W. K. Pendleton, State Superintendent 
of Schools, wrote me from Wheeling, West Virginia, 
under date of June 8, 1878, as follows : — 

"The next meetins: of the State Teachers' Asso- 
ciation will be held at Parkersburg, Aug. 27 to 29. 
Would like you to prepare a paper setting forth, in 
practical detail, the methods of grading common 
schools. This matter is attracting interest in many 
parts of the State, and many counties are in condition 
to introduce the system." 

While this subject was attracting attention through- 
out the State, a few of the foremost counties had al- 
ready adopted the system and were now testing its 
merits. The first county that fell into line in West 
Virginia, under this system, was Marshall, situated 
on the Ohio River. 

At a county institute which I conducted at 
Moundsville, Marshall County, West Virginia, dur- 



GROWTH OF THE SYSTEM. 87 

ing the holidays in 1876, the graduating system, 
after being freely discussed, was unanimously adopted. 

The system was at once put into operation by Mr. 
W. M. Wirt, county superintendent, who wrote me 
under date of Feb. 19, 1877, " We are having a revi- 
val of education in our county. We have been hold- 
ing educational meetings for some time, and the peo- 
ple are very much interested in education. Please 
send me a blank diploma, as we Avant to get some 
printed." 

In his annual report to the State Superintendent, 
for the year ending Aug. 31, 1877, Superintendent 
Wirt says': — 

" With the help of the teachers, I introduced 
Superintendent Wade's plan of holding district exam- 
inations and granting diplomas to those who could 
pass a creditable examination in the current com- 
mon-school branches. This, I think, had a good 
effect, as many pupils studied with an object, and 
endeavored to acquire a more practical knowledge of 
what they were studying than before. Diplomas 
were granted to two pupils in Liberty, to two in 
Union, and to three in Clay Districts, and to seven- 
teen in the Independent District of Moundsviile, 
while more than one hundred entered the ffraduatino: 
class of the present year. I think the system a good 
one, and would recommend it to the superintendents 
and teachers of other counties, as it has worked well 
so far as tried in this county. 

" Our schools have made decided improvements ; 



88 GRADUATIXG SYSTEM FOR COUNTRY SCHOOLS. 

have Imcl better teachers and have taken deeper root 
in the hearts of the people than ever before." 

In his annual report for the year ending* Aug*. 31, 
1878, having tested the system another year, he 
says : — 

" Our schools have been more efficient during the 
past year than during the preceding one, and much 
more so, in my judgment, than in any year since 
their introduction in our county. 

"I attribute the great success of our schools to 
two principal causes : first, better teachers ; second, 
the ^graduating system.' But to the 'graduating 
system,' more than to any other cause, do we owe 
the revival of our educational interests. The in- 
troduction of this system has met the hearty concur- 
rence of the great majority of the people, and where 
I have had the co-operation of the teachers in its in- 
troduction, it has been a success ; but it has, like all 
new things, having for its object the advancement of 
society, met with some opposition. 

" In the spring months I held examinations in the 
different districts, which were very interesting occa- 
sions, as the graduates delivered speeches in the 
evenings. In a few instances their commencement 
exercises would compare favorably with similar exer- 
cises in colleges and seminaries. There were seventy- 
six graduates during the year, most of whom showed 
a thorough knowled2:e of the common-school curricu- 
lam. There will be more than one hundred grad- 
uates in the incoming year. I will simply say to 



GECWTII OF THE SYSTEM. 89 

superintendents of other counties, Try it with a deter- 
mination to make it a success, and you will soon be 
convinced of its adaptabihty to the work to be 
done." 

Mr. T. ]Sr. Parks, county superintendent of Tyler 
County, West Virginia, in his annual report to the 
Staic Superintendent for the year ending Aug. 31, 
1878, says: — 

" Much of this increased attendance, with the supe- 
rior work done in the schools last winter, we attribute 
to the teachers' institutes that were held in the county ; 
especially the one held in Middlebournc in Novem- 
ber, 1877, conducted by the county superintendent 
and My. Wade, county superintendent of Monon- 
galia County, assisted by President Thompson, of the 
State University, and Mr. G. ^Y. Atkinson, editor 
of the Wheeling '^ Standard." Many questions of 
vital importance to the public schools were discussed 
in the institute, prominent among which was th(3 
graduating system, as originated and introduced by 
Mr. Wade into the free schools of Monono-alia 
County, and as adopted and practised in other coun- 
ties of the State. The teachers of the county voted 
unanimously to adopt it in Tyler County. 

"In carrying out the graduating system, and in 
order to test the thoroughness of those who wished 
to graduate in the free-school course, we held dis- 
trict examinations about the time the schools were 
closing in the spring. As the classes in some dis- 
tricts vrere small from want of material, we thought 



90 GRADUATING SYSTEM FOR COUNTRY SCHOOLS. 

best to combine as far as convenient. Four exami- 
nations Avere held in the county : one at Zion school- 
house in Union District ; one at Sistersville, in 
Lincoln District ; one in Middlebourne, for Elsworth 
and Meade Districts ; and one in Centreville, for Cen- 
tre ville and McElroy Districts. At these several 
examinations persons were examined in the seven 
branches directed to be tausfht in the free schools 
of the State, viz., orthography, reading, penmanship, 
arithmetic, English grammar, geography, and his- 
tory ; and many of them in several higher branches, 
such as physical geography, algebra, etc. All l)ut 
^ve who entered the m-aduatinu" class for 1878 were 
examined, unless prevented by sickness. Nearly all 
who w^ere not examined requested to be continued 
another year. Several who were examined will 
teach the coming winter, and all are among the 
most promising young men and women of the county. 
The number in the fj^raduatino- class for 1879 will l^e 
more than double the number in the class for 1878. 
The real usefulness and benefits of such a system will 
be known only as its effects are seen in the future. 

" To each one who sustained or passed a good and 
creditable examination, we granted a diploma neafy 
printed in colors on fine paper, and signed by the 
county superintendent, the president of the Board of 
Education, and the teacher of the school to which the 
pupil belonged. It was deemed best not to grade 
these diplomas as in other countiec, but fix a standard 
to wdiich all should attain or not pass, which standard 



GROWTH OF THE SYSTEM. 91 

was fixed at seventy-five per cent of all the questions 
asked ; also to give pupils the chance to pass on higher 
branches, and have them inserted on the face of their 
diplomas, which was thonght to be a greater encour- 
agement to scholarship than grading diplomas." 

In his annual report for the year ending Aug. 31, 
1879, having tried the plan another year, he says : — 

"The graduating system*' as applied to public 
schools has done much to improve their general char- 
acter in this county. At the graduating exercises 
held at the close of the schools this year, fifty-seven 
presented themselves for examination and graduation 
in the full free-school course of study. It is a 
source of regret to all lovers of our schools, that the 
law is so amended that the county superintendent 
hereafter cannot visit the schools, and thus assist in 
this work. It will be very hard to carry out this 
system under the present law." 

Mr. J. M. Satterfield, county superintendent of 
j\Iarion Count}^, West Virginia, wrote me under date 
of Dec. 31, 1877: — 

" Allow me to congratulate you upon the great 
success with which your graduating system is meet- 
ing. The system has certainly worked wonders in 
the short time during which it has been in operation. 
One by one the counties are introducing and trying it. 
Marion County is laying the plan to this end. Quito 
a number of graduating classes have been formed, 
some to complete the course this year. So far as I 
have acted in this direction, the greatest encourage- 



92 GRADUATING SYSTEM FOR COUNTRY SCHOOLS. 

mciit has attended me, and I am led to believe that 
the system has something grand in Avay of results for 
our county." 

In his annual report to the State Superintendent 
for the year ending Aug. 31, 1878, he says : — 

"This report, compared with last year's, indi- 
cates a gain or improvement in many important par- 
ticulars, while I believe there is no marked fall- 
ing off in any direction to be taken as unfavorable 
or detrimental ; and Avhile the language of figures 
speaks for us an advancement in the cause of educa- 
tion, our progress, I think I am safe in saying, is 
readable more in the sjiirit that is seen to pervade 
the diff -rent departments of the work. 

" Anotlier great auxiliary in the work with us, as 
it is recognized by almost every one, is our system of 
gradation and ex imi nation for scholars, introduced 
during the year. Though the extra labor demanded 
of me to introduce this feature, and carry on its oper- 
ations during the term, was very considerable, I feel, 
on viewing the results, well satisfied with the project, 
and know that my labor has not been in vain. As I 
forwarded you a copy of our catalogue, reporting 
this work in full for the year, I will not consume 
space in detailing the particulars Jtere, and will 
remark no further concerning it, save to express the 
earnest desire that all our county superintendents 
may introduce and give this system a trial." 

In his annual report to the State Superintendent 
for the year ending Aug. ol, 1879, having tried the 
system t\YQ successiv^e years, he says : — 



GROWTH OF THE SYSTEM. 93 

"The graduating system introduced by me the 
previous year was kept in operation through the 
term. Ninety-seven pupils passed the examination 
and received certificates. One hundred and twenty- 
eight passed the year before ; so that in all two hun- 
dred and twenty-five of our scholars have graduated, 
so to speak, since the plan was introduced. 

" Classes have been formed for future years, and 
my successor informs me that he will continue the 
work." 

Mr. G. W. Lowther, county superintendent of 
Ritchie County, West Virginia, in his annual report 
to the State Superintendent for the year ending Aug. 
31, 1879, says: — 

^* The teachers of our county assembled in institute 
adopted the graduating system, as explained by Mr. 
Wjide. It had a marked effect upon the schools." 

Hon. W. K. Pendleton, State Superintendent of 
Free Schools of West Virginia, after watching care- 
fully the work of the graduating system for two suc- 
cessive years, in his biennial report to the governor 
for the two years ending Aug. 31, 1878, recom- 
mends its universal adoption by law. In his report, 
above named, under the head of " Gr^U)ED Primary 
Instruction," he says : — 

" All education should be conducted with method ; 
a rational progress towards a definite end is the 
secret of success in every undertaking. But in our 
primary schools, while we have a prescribed set of 
subjects and text-books, there is no prescribed 



94 GRADUATING SYSTEM FOR COUNTRY SCHOOLS. 

order in which the subjects shall be studied, nor 
arrangement of the pupils in classes, nor designa- 
tion of the time to be given to them respectively. 
There ought to be a beginning, a regular order of 
progress, and end, to the primary course of instruc- 
tion. This has been felt by some of our best county 
superintendents ; and Superintendent Wade, of Mo- 
nongalia County, has succeeded in introducing a 
method, in the schools of his county, that has 
worked with admirable success. But so long as it is 
left to each teacher to do as he lists, with respect to 
the oro-anization and conduct of school work, we can 
have but little system or uniformity in it. I suggest 
that authority be given to prescribe a regular course 
of primary instruction, to be generally followed in 
the schools, with provision for the examination and 
graduation of all pupils who satisfactorily complete it." 
The following letter, which I received soon after 
the adjournment of the Legislature, shows the action 
of that body in this matter, and presents more fully 
the superintendents' proposed plan for carrying out 
the graduating system. The letter contains sugges- 
tions which should be carefully considered by those 
who think of testing this system. 

Department op Fkeb Schools. State op West Virginia, 

Wheeling, W. Va., April 24, 1S79. 

Mr. a. L. Wade, 

County Superintendent. 
Dear Sir, — I was greatly disappointed at the action of the 
Legislature on the subject of grading our common schools. I 
prepared the following bill on the subject : — 



GROAVTH OF THE SYSTEM. 95 

" The State Superintendent shall prescribe a regular 
course of primary instruction to be followed in the schools 
throughout the State, arranging the order in which the sev- 
eral subjects shall be taken up and studied, and the time to be 
devoted to them respectively, with provision for advancement 
from class to class ; also for the examination and graduation 
of all pupils who satisfactorily complete the prescribed course. 

" He shall in like manner prescribe courses of study to be 
adopted and followed in graded and high schools." 

This bill was adopted by the Senate, but Avas stricken out 
in the House. Had the Legislature adopted this bill, my plan 
was to call a meeting of the best educators in our State and 
agree upon a course with such flexibility as to make it adjust- 
able to special cases, and then attempt, as far as practicable, 
through the institutes, to so explain and introduce it to the 
teachers as that in a short time all could work by it, and it 
could be made generally efficient. 

I had cherished this amendment to our school management 
with especial interest, because I believe it would have done 
more to give efficiency and fruitfulness to our system than 
any other one thing that we could devise. 

But our Legislature thought otherwise, or perhaps did not 
think about it at all, and so we must wait another two years. 
You will readily see, however, that the plan cannot be made 
to Avork satisfactorily without restoring the visiting feature 
of county superintendency (repealed by the Legislature) , and 
at the same time securing, in many counties, superintendents 
of higher grade of qualification. There has, I think, been a 
marked improvement in our county superintendents during 
the last few years; and I believe it is entirely practicable, 
with the former salary, to raise up in due time — through the 
force of public sentiment, the quality of work demanded by 
the central management, and the advantages of experience — 
men as county superintendents, who would prove to be a 
most efficient and satisfactory arm of^the school system. 
Respectfully j'ours, 

^Y. K. Pendletoit. 



9(5 GRADUATING SYSTEM FOR COUNTRY SCHOOLS. 

I desire now to call your attention to some offi-* 
cial testimony which I find published in connection 
with the report of the State Superintendent of Public 
Instruction of Pennsylvania. 

jMr. A. F. Silvius, county superintendent of 
Greene County, Pennsylvania, in his report for the 
year 1878, says: — 

" The sul)ject of making a classification of the 
schools, and of introducing a system of gradation 
and promotion, was submitted to a committee of 
teachers at the county institute, and the following is 
the report : — 

" Resolved^ 1. That we believe that the best inter- 
ests of education demand a thorousrh classification of 

o 

all the schools of the county ; and to this end we 
favor the adoption of a graded course of studies that 
shall provide for instruction in proper order in all 
the common-school branches, and that we will use 
our influence and eftbrts to secure such a course of 
studies and classification of all the schools of this 
county at the earliest practicable day. 

"2. That the county superintendent, with the aid 
and co-operation of the school directors and teachers, 
hold examinations in each township, for the purpose 
of giving those pupils found worthy of the same a 
certificate signed by the county superintendent, the 
board of directors, and the teachers constituting the 
examining committee, stating that the holder is a 
person of good moral character, and has completed 
the common-school course of study. 



GROWTH OF THE SYSTEM. 97 



'*1. It will enable our teachers to accomplish 
much more than they can by the present arrange- 
ment, by which the studies pursued are determined 
largely by the judgment of the parents or the pupils. 

"2. It will enable pupils to accomplish much 
more than by the irregular, ill-proportioned course 
pursued at present. 

"3. It will secure more interest and closer 
inspection on the part of directors and parents. 

" 4. It will be an incentive to pupils. 

"5. It will secure more regular attendance. 

"6. It will give an impulse to education. 

"7. It Avill save money in buying books. 

" 8. It will direct the efforts of the county super- 
intendent, so that he can accomplish more good than 
by the present mode of visitation." 

"In accordance with this report," says the super- 
intendent, " I suggested a course of study, and near 
the close of schools, held examinations at Garard's 
Fort, Taylortown, Mt. Morris, Newtovv^n, Rogersville, 
Bridgeport, Carmichael's, Kinsley school-house, and 
Jolleytown, at which eighty-three pupils passed sat- 
isfactory examinations, and were granted diplomas. 
Literary exercises were connected with the examina- 
tions, and the meetings gave universal satisfaction. 
I know of no better means to arouse emulation 
among pupils, schools, and districts, and to give 



98 GRADUATING SYSTEM FOR COUNTRY SCHOOLS. 

an impulse to education, than perfecting the system 
now introduced." 

I wish now to present the official testimony of sev- 
eral county superintendents, which I find published 
in connection with the annual reports of the State 
Superintendent of Public Instruction of New Jerse}^ 
Several points worthy of the consideration of all who 
are interested in the graduating system, appear in 
this testimony. I desire to call special attention to 
the extended course of study for country schools, 
and to the several plans for examining graduating 
classes and holding commencement exercises. None 
of them, it seems, publish catalogues. 

Mr. F. R. Brace, county superintendent of Cam- 
den County, New Jersey, in his annual report for the 
year ending Aug. 31, 1877, says : — 

"It is gratifying to be able to report that the past 
year has been one of progress. The course of study 
marked out in my last report was completed in nine 
of our schools, and nearly reached by several others. 
Questions in the various branches for examination 
were prepared and sent to the different schools ; the 
examination w^as conducted on the same day in each 
school, and the papers brought to me in Camden 
on Saturday of the same Aveek. All the papers 
were examined and marked by myself. Twenty-four 
pupils obtained the necessary average. On June 22, 
in presence of the State Superintendent, the county 
superintendents of Burlington and Gloucester Coun- 
ties, the city superintendent of Atlantic City, teach- 



GROWTH OF THE SYSTEM. 99 

ers and other friends of education, diplomas were 
given to the successful pupils. 

" In conference with trustees and teachers, it has 
been thought best to extend the course of study so 
as to give a knowledge of the principles of mechanics, 
chemistry, and industrial drawing. This, we think, 
will give a more even development to all of our pupils, 
and enable them to enter, with greater facility, into 
any department of work. I am satisfied that our 
public schools can accomplish much more than has 
been attempted in past years, and all that can be ac- 
complished we are in duty bound to undertake. 
Nearly all our teachers are in heartiest sympathy witli 
this upward and onward movement, and I think I can 
say nearly every Board of Trustees is also. All that 
is needed is to have the course of study, the l)est 
plans, the best methods pointed out, and with intelli- 
gent work and intelligent supervision the result can 
be reached. 

" It would be well for every teacher to know how 
much can be reasonably expected of him in his 
year's work. A regular course of study should be 
marked out, and every teacher expected to carry it 
out. There is no reason why the same results at- 
tained in the districts mentioned above should not be 
attained in every district in the county. There is 
not a difficulty in those remaining districts that does 
not exist in others. Many are rapidly approaching 
the standard. A few have only primary schools. 
Taking into account all hindrances and difficulties 



100 GRADUATING SYSTEM FOR COUNTRY SCHOOLS. 

that arise from the ignorance and prejudices of trus- 
tees or parents in these few districts, I am con- 
strained to believe that the condition of these schools 
is owing to the incompetence of the teachers. The 
work of the county can be systematized, and as 
much accomplished as in the large towns and cities " 

In his annual report for 1878, he says : — 

" The past year has been one of fair progress. 
The regular course of study marked out for the 
schools has been steadily pursued. The number 
passing the final examination was less than the })rc- 
vious year. The questions sent to the schools were 
more difficult. The branches in which the pupils 
were examined were reading, spelling, writing, geog- 
raphy, ])ractical arithmetic, English grammar, history 
of the United States, Constitution of the United 
States, book-keeping, algebra, drawing, physiology, 
and natural philosophy. In the circular prepared 
for the guidance of teachers and pupils, at the exami- 
nation, it was stated that the pupils who should pass 
in the first six branches would be deemed merito- 
rious ; in the first nine, honorable ; and those who 
should pass in all would receive a di})lomn." 

In his annual report for the year 1870, having 
tested the system three successive years, he says : — 

" The regular course of study lias been faithfully 
pursued in nearly all the schools. The number of 
l)upils that passed the final examination in the thir- 
teen branches of our course was twenty-six. Some 
districts that had pupils to pass the final examination 



GEOWTII OF TTIE SYSTEM. 101 

in former years had none the last year ; not because 
the schools have retrograded, but because pupils in 
the advanced classes have left the schools and aone 
into business, and it will take from two to three 
years to bring tJie next class up to the required 
grade. The grade of each school is determined 
mainly by the result of the examination. 

"Eleven districts are now marked first-grade; 
nine, second-grade ; ten, third-grade ; eleven being 
below third-grade. These eleven have not had the 
same advantages as the other districts, either in the 
well-qualified, earnest, live teachers, or in deeply in- 
terested trustees. Teachers that are content to hold 
third-grade certificates for six or eight 3'ears, or that 
have not the ability to get higher-grade certificates, 
are not able to do the work required of them ; that is, 
cannot do work commensurate Avith their pay. I am 
expecting a marked change in some of these districts 
the coming year." 

Mr. Edgar Haas, county superintendent of Bur- 
lington County, New Jersey, in his annual report for 
the year ending Aug. 31, 1877, says : — 

" Finding the schools so various in their studies, 
and believing that much more could be efiected by 
having them uniform, a course of study has been pre- 
scribed for all the schools in the county, consisting of 
five divisions. It embraces reading, spelling, writ- 
ing, arithmetic, geography, etymology, grammar, 
composition, United States history, mensuration, 
algebra, geometry, book-keeping, physiology, and 
natural philosophy. 



102 GRADUATING SYSTEM FOR COUNTRY SCFIOOLS. 

"The books to be used in it are those recom- 
mended to the trustees by the county superintendent. 

"It is proposed that at the end of each school year, 
there shall be held an examination of such pupils of 
the public schools of the county as have completed 
the course prescribed. This examination will be 
conducted by the County Board of Examiners, and all 
those who pass it will receive a county diploma, 
scttinii: forth the same." 

In his annual report for the year 1878, having 
tested the graduating system, ho says : — 

" The year through which we have just passed has 
been one of unusual gain to the schools of the county ; 
resulting, doubtless, from the great interest taken in 
the prescribed course of study for the county, the 
County Teachers' Association, and the County 
Teachers' Institute. 

" It is a noticeable fact that Avhcrevcr we find 
schools that have not been classified, and that have 
not followed the prescribed course of study for the 
county (and I am glad to say that their number is 
becoming less and less day by day), we also find that 
they have, in a great measure, fiiiled to make that 
progress and give that satisfaction rightfully demanded 
by an interested community ; while on the other 
hand, those that have been classified and that have 
closely followed the prescribed course of study show 
highly meritorious and satisfactory work. The most 
marked results are those attained by thirteen schools 
in completing the course of study, and attested by a 



GROWTH OF THE SYSTEM. 103 

general examination by the county superintendent 
upon questions prepared by him." 

" Out of the forty-eight pupils examined, there were 
but three that failed to reach the necessary average, 
seventy per cent. The other forty-five successful 
ones were graduated as the ^ Class of 1878,' the first 
of the public schools of Burlington County, on the 
twenty-ninth day of June, in the Concert Hail at 
Mount Holly, in the presence of about six hundred 
people. 

" After introductory remarks by the county super- 
intendent, the exercises by the graduates, and a 
stirring address on ^The Relation of the Public 
Schools to the Cause of Education,' by Professor J. 
B. Maugham, principal of the Tuckertou schools, all 
enlivened with music, the county superintendent 
conferred upon the graduates the very neat Burling- 
ton County diploma. 

"Although the graduates had not been brought 
together for preparation, yet they acquitted them- 
selves most nobly and creditably through the whole 
of the exercises. No one present could fail to see 
the great interest manifested in the cause. And 
who, in after years, as interest increases, will l^e able 
to measure the inspiring and encouraging influence 
of these yearly commencements upon our schools ? 

"Immediately after this examination upon the 
course of study, eight of the successful ones, who 
intend to follow teaching as a profession, passed 
the May examination for teachers' certificates, — all 



104 GRADUATING SYSTEM FOR COUNTRY SCHOOLS. 

standing high and receiving the third-grade certifi- 
cates, the highest the law permits them now to 
hold." 

In his annual report for the year ending Aug. 31, 
1879, having still more fully tested the plan, he pre- 
sents clearly the influence of the system upon the 
schools of his county, as follows : — 

" While statistics exhibit in condensed form what 
has been accomplished as an end, yet they do not 
always show what has been employed as a means to 
that end ; it therefore becomes my duty, if I wish 
to be just to myself in enumerating the amount and 
kind of work done, and explicit to the reader inter- 
ested in educational matters, to accompany them 
with a brief statement, pointing out the relation 
between cause and elfect in every important result. 

" The year starting off with the great momentum 
of the remarkable progress of the previous year, it 
was expected that there would be a corresponding 
gain in the general results for this year. In sum- 
ming up, we find that our expectations have ])een 
most eminently realized. 

"The grand end and aim of our system of public 
schools is the assurance of a good general education 
to each and every child in the State ; and the extent 
to which this is carried, is to be determined only by 
a thorough examination in a high course of study 
provided by the schools. If from year to year, 
under similar circumstances, the number of pupils 
passing such examinations continues to increase, the 



GROWTH OF THE SYSTEM. 105 

schools are making real, substantial power for future 
advancement. 

" With the view of knowing the comparative 
standing of the schools of the county from year 
to year, 1 determined to institute just such examina- 
tions. The result of last year's examination was 
seen in having forty-five pupils pass the fiery ordeal. 
This we then pronounced a grand success. But 
whether its influence upon the schools would be 
lasting or spasmodic remained to be seen. This 
year seventy-two passed the examination, seemingly 
making a gain of sixty per cent over that of last year. 

"In order to know whether this gain is real or 
seeming, we must take into consideration the circum- 
stances under which it has been obtained. The one 
circumstance above all others to be considered is 
that of the age of pupils, for we cannot expect as 
much of tender age as of more mature years. This 
year the average age of those passing the examina- 
tion is much less than that of those passing last 
year ; last year there were but a few too young to 
graduate upon their successful examination, while 
this year there are fifteen, — a result showing the 
real clear gain to be even greater than that which 
appears in the figures above. Hence the excess 
must be attributed to other causes, and these can be 
but three in number : the encouragement by the 
parent, the enthusiasm of the teacher, and the appli- 
cation of the pupil. It is ever these three harmoni- 
ously working together that have produced the grand 



106 GRADUATING SYSTEM FOR COUNTRY SCHOOLS. 

results of which we feel so proud. Aud thus con- 
tinuing the work from year to year, our school sys- 
tem will soon be in a fair way of accomplishing its 
grand enil and aim, that of giving a good general 
education to each and every child in the State. 

''The general examination of the pupils of the 
schools who completed the course of study for the 
county was held during the week commencing 
Monday, the seventh day of April. There were 
seventy-four pupils examined, seventy-two of whom 
passed, the remaining two being rejected because of 
their inferior papers. Five of those that passed 
were graduates of last year, thus leaving sixty-seven 
fresh ones for this year ; fifteen of these being too 
young, there remain but fifty-two to be graduated 
on Saturday, the thirteenth day of September, as 
the class of 1879, in the Concert Hall, at Mount 
Holly, when and where we expect to have an inter- 
esting time. Fourteen of the said fifteen too young 
for graduation are of the schools of the city of Bur- 
lington, and the other one is from the schools of 
Mount Holly." 

Mr. S. R. Morse, county superintendent of 
Atlantic County, New Jersey, in his annual report 
for the year ending Aug. 31, 1878, says : — 

" In order to advance the cause of education, and 
bring the schools to a higher standard, I called all 
the trustees together, and submitted a plan for a 
course of instruction similar to that in Camden and 
Burlington Counties. The trustees all heartily in- 



GEOWTH OF THE SYSTEM. 107 

dorsed it. I then called the teachers together, who 
as heartily indorsed the plan, and a course was 
adopted. This course embraces reading, spelling, 
writing, arithmetic, geography, grammar, history, 
book-keeping, physiology, and algebra, and will 
consist of four divisions. 

"The books to be used in the course are those 
recommended to the trustees by the county super- 
intendent. A Avritten examination in the last three 
divisions will be made in April, and all those getting 
above a certain average will have their names and 
standing j^ublished in the county papers, w^hile all 
those who pass the examination in all the studies of 
the highest grade will receive a county certificate, 
to be presented at a public commencement to be held 
in some central place in the county. I believe this 
plan will be of great benefit to our schools in many 
respects. The teachers and pupils have an incentive 
to work. It will induce pupils to commence school 
earlier in the year, attend more regularly, and con- 
tinue there longer. Parents will take more interest 
in the education of their children ; and if moving 
from one district to another, the pupils can enter the 
same grade they have left." 

In his annual report for the year ending Aug. 31, 
1879, he gives the result of one year's trial of the 
system. He says : — 

"I believe all interested persons w^ill agree with 
me in the statement that more real work has been 
done, and greater advancement made in our schools 



108 GRADUATING SYSTEM FOK COUNTRY SCHOOLS. 

during the year just closed, than ia any previous year. 
Much of this is due to the course of study which has 
been adopted and carried out m most of the schools. 

"Our Teachers' Association, Institute, and other 
causes have also done much good. 

"The examination of all the schools, except those 
of Egg Harbor City and one school that had been 
closed, showed the difterence, when a comparison was 
made, between those that had worked under the new 
plan and those that had worked under the old." 

The report from which the foregoing extract is 
taken, shows also that the county superintendent 
prepared and sent, under seal, to each teacher, ques- 
tions for examination of graduating classes, and that 
examinations were held in the several schools of the 
county at the same time. For the benefit of those 
who wish to study one of the most thorough plans 
for the examination of graduating classes in country 
schools, I copy from the report the following circular 
of instruction to teachers : — 

" 1. The teacher will not open the envelopes con- 
taining the questions before the date marked on them, 
and then in the presence of the school. 

" 2. The teacher will hold the examination on the 
days designated by the county superintendent, and 
in his or her own school-room. 

"3. The teacher will open envelope Xo. 1 the 
first day, and, taking out one subject at a time, in 
the order numbered, WTite as many of the questions 
on the blackboard as he thinks can be answere^d be- 



GROWTH OF THE SYSTEM. 109 

fore intermission. The second-day envelope No. 2 
will be opened in the same manner. 

" 4. No explanations of any kind are to be given 
by the teacher or other person. 

"5. Tlie teacher will seat the pupils in such a 
manner that no two pupils of the same grade shall be 
near each other. 

"6. All books will be removed from the desks, 
all maps and charts rolled up, and no pupil allowed 
to have aid from any source. 

"7. The papers must be sent or handed to the 
county superintendent just as the pupil left them. 
An}' help given, or corrections made, will render the 
papers null. 

"8. Each pupil will write his name and the sub- 
ject of examination at the head of each page. The 
pupils need not copy the questions, but number each 
and leave one space between each answer. If they 
cannot answer a question, they will number it and 
write, ^ I cannot answer.' 

"9. The pupils are requested to take great care 
of their papers, as they ^vill be preserved. The 
work may be done on waste paper or a slate, and 
then copied before handed to the teacher, but not 
afterward ; neither can any mistakes be corrected. 

" 10. In all mathematical questions the pupils will 
give the work as well as the result. 

"11, No one can leave the room till the set of 
questions is completed and handed to the teacher, 
except at intermission ; then only those who have 
completed the set." 



110 GRADUATING SYSTEM FOR COUNTRY SCHOOLS. 

I propose to conclude this testimony by submit- 
ting the following appreciative letter from Hon. E. 
A. Apgar, State Superintendent of Public Instruction 
of the State of New Jersey : — 

State of New Jersey, 
Department of Public Instkuction, 

Trenton, Feb. 4, 1880. 

Mr. a. L. Wade, Iforgantown, West Virginia. 

My Dear Sir, — I have examined your " Graduating Sys- 
tem for Country Schools " with both pleasure and profit, i 
regard it as eminently practical, and calculated, where intro- 
duced, to elevate our country schools to the standard of our 
best village and city schools. 

Wishing^you success, I am. 
Yours truly, 

Elias a. Apgar, 

State Superintendent of Public Instruction. 

I submit, without argument, the foregoing official 
testimony of those who have tried the graduating 
system. 



LECTURE VII. 

EDITORIAL REVIEWS OF THE GRADUATING SYSTEM BY 
LEADING EDUCATIONAL JOURNALS. 

Having, for three successive years, tested the 
merits of the graduating system, I determined, in 
the autumn of 1878, to make an effort to present it 
more fully to the public. To this end, I sent copies 
of the catalogue containing my annual report to a 
few of the foremost educational journals, widely 
separated from each other, in sundry sections of the 
United States. I wrote to each editor, requesting 
that the system might he reviewed, criticised, con- 
demned, or approved. The unanimity of sentiment 
expressed by these journals may be seen in the 
following editorials. 

The January number, 1879, of "The Teacher," 
Philadelphia, concludes its notice of the graduating 
system for country schools, as set forth in the Third 
Annual Catalogue of the Free Schools of Monongalia 
County, West Virginia, in these words : — 

" It remained for the latter half of the nineteenth 
century to originate, develop, and mature such a 
free-school s^'stem as would challenge the admiration 
of the nations of the earth. German}', deep in its 



112 GRADUATING SYSTEM FOR COUNTRY SCHOOLS. 

lore, rich in its universities and academic halls, has 
invited our system to her shores ; and far-off Japan 
already has planted the nucleus which must soon 
change still more largely its ancient landmarks. The 
graduating system, as described in the pamphlet 
before us, is a grand forward step in the march of 
education. AVe hail with satisfaction an appliance 
of this kind, coming, as it does, from a live teacher, 
and exhibiting the results of practical experience in 
the school-room." 

The "American Journal of Education," St. Louis, 
March number, 1879, presents at some length, with- 
out comment, the West Virginia graduating system 
for country schools. In the April number, 1879, of 
that journal, the editor gives his opinion of the plan, 
in the following words : — 

" We hope the article on ' Schools in West Vir- 
ginia,' published in our last issue, was very carefully 
read. 

" We see in it many things to admire and to 
commend. 

" As a means of interesting both the pupil and the 
parent, it proved to be eminently successful. The 
parents, too, were tax-payers, and it gave the teachers 
an opportunity to demonstrate to the tax-payers the 
worth and the measure of their work. We should 
have more lil^eral estimates made for all our schools 
in this State, if the tax-payers knew what and how 
much our teachers are doing. 

" IS^ot knowing much about it, they are disposed to 



EDITORIAL REVIEWS. 113 

cut down the estimates for teachers' wages and other 
necessary things to the lowe-t figure possible. 

"For this, our teachers themselves are very much 
to blame. They do not take care that the tax-payers 
shall be kept well posted on what the schools are 
doing, — on what improvements are being made. 

" This graduating system, adopted and so success- 
fully carried out by Mr. A. L. Wade, of Monongalia 
County, West Virginia, would certainly work a much- 
needed reform in this direction. 

"There is so much of real practical value in it, 
touching as it does this vital question of the icortJi 
and tlic work of our teachers, that we are disposed 
to strongly commend it to the attention of our friends 
all through the West and South." 

The "Educational Weekly," Chicago, of March 28, 
1879, contains a critical review^ of this system. 
Under the head of " Grading Country Schools," the 
editor says : — 

"Mr. A. L. Wade, of Morgantown, West Virginia, 
county superintendent of schools, has introduced, and 
carried forward to gratifjdng results, a graduating 
system in the public schools of Monongalia County, 
which has attracted considerable attention in neigh- 
boring counties, and w^hich has been adopted in sev- 
eral other counties in that State and in various places 
in Western Pennsylvania. The various features of 
this system have been discussed at most of the teach- 
ers' associations throughout the country, although 
their adoption has not in general been thought advis- 



114 GRADUATING SYSTEM FOK COUNTRY SCHOOLS. 

able. According to Mr. Wade, the plan which he 
has so successfully carried out for four years past has 
produced an educational revival in that part of the 
country. According to his plan, a course of study is 
adopted for the free-school branches, the more ad- 
vanced pupils being organized into four separate 
classes, according to their grades. A time is fixed 
in which each pupil is expected to complete the 
course ; an annual examination is 4eld, with com- 
mencement exercises in each district, and diplomas 
are granted to those who, upon examination, are 
found to be worthy of them, ximong these gradu- 
ates alumni associations are formed, and an annual 
catalogue is published, in which the names of gradu- 
ates and undergraduates appear in the classes to Avhich 
they respectively belong. It is simply applying to 
primary schoos a system which, centuries ago, was 
adopted in universities and colleges, and more 
recently in academies and high schools. 

" There can be no question but that such a course 
will, very materially quicken the interest of both 
pupils and parents in the public schools. The same 
personal ambition is appealed to in the children as that 
which inspires the academic or college student to apply 
himself diligently to his studies, and finally graduate 
from the course with a formal certificate of attainments. 
And this is also the testimony of Superintendent 
Wade, after having well tried the plan. He says, 
^Wherever it has been properly tested, it has created 
an interest among pupils and parents never before 



EDITORIAL REVIEWS. 115 

witnessed in free-school work.' He furnishes abun- 
dant testimony of a similar kind from others who have 
tried the plan, and strongly urges its general adoption 
throughout the countr}^ 

" The tendency toward such a graduating system is 
apparent in the public schools of the cities and larger 
villages everywhere. Each year some city school 
adopts for the first time the practice of giving diplo- 
mas or certificates to pupils who are not expecting 
to remain in school long enough to reach the highest 
department. And where the rural schools are com- 
petently superintended and the patrons are generally 
constant from year to year, it is not only possible, 
but certainly desirable, that the course of study should 
be definite and uniform in the various districts of a 
county. However, without a competent superin- 
tendency, such a system would result in just that 
which is now everywhere condemned and in too many 
places practised, especially in the primary grades, — 
viz., a system of cramming and overwork, which is 
the result of an ambition to accomplish the most 
possible in the shortest time. If, with the experience 
and ability of our city superintendents and teachers, 
there is still an evident excess of competition, too 
much high pressure, and too little individual instruc- 
tion, how can younger and less experienced teachers 
be expected to avoid these evils? Further, it may 
be tolerable for the young man or woman in academy 
or college to be placed on — his, her, their — mettle, 
and tested to the highest capacity ; yet if such strain 



116 GRADUATING SYSTEM FOR COUNTRY SCHOOLS. 

should be placed upon the delicate and sensitive 
nature of childhood, the result would be disastrous 
in the extreme. It is just this fault which is to-day 
provoking most criticism and threatening most seri- 
ously the unity of the system in large cities. The 
lower grades are suffering from over-taxation. Too 
much is requii-ed of pupils and teachers, as the result 
of severe grading. The memory is pressed beyond 
its natural capacity, and the education of the child is 
lost sight of in the anxiety to accomplish the results 
indicated by the printed course. 

^^This question is one of great importance in the 
administration of our public-school system, and the 
friends of that system should give it fair and sober con- 
sideration. While, therefore, the ^Weekly' would 
approve and defend every such movement as that of 
Superintendent Wade in West Virginia, if judiciously 
and wisely conducted, it would caution all who are 
devoted to such progressive steps to advance slowly, 
and carefully guard against abuses which are apt to 
follow close upon the heels of all true progress. 
Anything which will elevate the teacher and his work, 
anything which will deepen the interest of parents in 
the education of their children and secure for the 
teachers and the schools better facilities and better 
compensation, anything which will tend to popularize 
the public schools of the country, should receive the 
encouragement of all who have been connected with 
these schools as teachers or pupils, and thus learned 
by experience theix* value and importance to the 
highest interests of the people and the nation." 



EDITORIAL REVIEWS. 117 

It may not be amiss to call attention to the fact 
that the criticisms contained in the foresfoinof article 
are aimed, mainly, at severe grading in the lower 
departments of the schools of large cities, and not at 
the system under consideration. The evil complained 
of is carefully guarded against in the graduating 
system for country schools, where, as stated in a 
former lecture, only the older and more advanced 
pupils are permitted to have their names entered for 
graduation. 

"Barnes's Educational Monthly," New York, Feb- 
ruary number, 1879, contains an editorial entitled 
"Our Common-School System," which I present in 
full. The editor says : — 

"The question has frequentljM^jeen asked of late, 
What is meant by a common-school course ? It has 
been nothing but a mixture of reading, writing, and 
arithmetic, with a quantity of geography, history, 
and science, in quantities to suit the taste ; there has 
been no course in it. In a multitude of cases, what 
a child studies depends upon the blind judgment of 
parents or the momentary convenience or caprice of 
te chers. The so-called common-school course is no 
course at all. We most earnestly commend any 
superintendent or teacher Avho can suggest any way 
by which order can be obtained and the confusion 
now existing avoided. Mr. A. L. Wade, count\^ 
superintendent, Monongalia County, West Virginia, 
has done more in this direction than any other person 
of whom we have heard. In his work he has accom- 



118 GRADUATING SYSTEM FOR COUNTRY SCHOOLS. 

plished the following results, which we commend to 
all similar workers throiic:hout the Union : — 

"1. The primiuy branches are taken up as one 
course of study for graduation. 

" 2. The time in which each advanced pupil 
agrees to complete a certain course is fixed. 

"3. Public examinations of graduating classes 
are held annually, and diplomas are granted to those 
who complete prescribed courses. 

" 4. Alumni associations of those who have grad- 
uated are formed. 

"5. An annual catalosrue containinof the names 
of all advanced pupils attending school in the county 
during the year is published. In this catalogue the 
names of all pupils are placed in their appropriate 
classes, showing from year to year what advancement 
has been made. 

"In all this Avork there is needed careful and intel- 
ligent supervision. The plan is admirable ; and if 
it should be universally adopted, it would give our 
county commissi(niers and superintendents a definite 
work to do, and unify oar common schools, so that 
we could point, with some show of truth and reason, 
to the common-school system of the United States 
of America." 

The " New England Journal of Education," Boston, 
May 8, 1879, published the foregoing article from 
" Barnes's Educational Monthly," and adds : " We 
hope to examine the results of Mr. Wade's efforts 
more fully, when we shall be better able to judge of 
their merits." 



EDITOKIAL REVIEWS. 119 

I might greatly multiply these editorial reviews 
by including those of later date, as many leading 
educational journals have recently reviewed the sys- 
tem ; but I propose to conclude this subject by pre- 
senlins: a sinsrle additional article. 

The ''Monthly Normal Eeview," July number, 
1879, contains a leading editorial on the graduating 
system, from which I make the following extract : — 

" It is simply the application to primary schools 
of a well-grounded principle employed in all higher 
schools. Every student who enters college, for 
example, has his course mapped out for him. He 
may do more, but there is a minimum of work which 
he must do. So here, as soon as a child passes from 
the preparatory grade to his class, he knows how 
much work he has to do, and how much time he has 
for doing it. It insures also a variety of studies ; 
and we do not believe Mr. Wade states it too strongly 
when he says, 'My opinion is that a pupil from 
fourteen to sixteen years of age, who has had some 
advantages in school, will do better in each branch, 
if he takes up the entire free-school course, than he 
will do if he takes up nothing beyond arithmetic' 
It furnishes the pupil an incentive to work. He has 
publicly pledged himself to accomplish a certain 
thing, and has associated himself with others striving 
for the same end ; and now it is no longer the 
teacher who urges him on, but his own self-pride, 
his emulative feeling, his love for the approval of 
friends, and added to these, and equally potent with 



120 GRADUATING SYSTEM FOR COUNTRY SCHOOLS. 

any of them, the desire for the approval and fear of 
the condemnation of pu1)lic opinion, at whose bar he 
is now judged. Our country schools certainl}^ need 
some attention, and we know of no plan more prom- 
ising of good than this. It has been tried in some 
places, and we would gladly see it adopted in more ; 
for though objections may be found to it, neverthe- 
less it is a step in the right direction, and it is cer- 
tainly freer from faults than many other plans already 
in vogue. At the very least it merits a fair trial and 
a full discussion, and we hope it may have both 
these as soon as possible." 



LECTURE Vni. 

WHAT LEADING EDUCATOKS SAY OF THE GRADUATDfG 
SYSTEMt 

I HAVE, in the course of these lectures, presented 
the official testimony of State and county superin- 
tendents who have tried the graduating system ; I 
have brought forward editorial reviews from some of 
the leading educational journals, and I now offer 
the carefully prepared opinions of other distinguished 
educators. 

I shall first present the opinion of Dr. James 
G. Blair, principal of the State Normal School at 
Fairmont, West Virginia, and formerly vice-presi- 
dent of the University of Ohio. In the September 
number, 1876, of the "West Virginia Educational 
Monthly," of which he was editor, he discusses, at 
length, the graduating system for country schools, 
which had then been tested in but one county in the 
United States, and draws his conclusions in the fol- 
lowing words : — 

"The plan is eminently practical, and unifies the 
schools of the county into one working graded school. 
It places before the teachers of the county a definite 
object to be accomplished. That object is feasible. 



122 GRADUATING SYSTEM FOR COUNTRY SCHOOLS. 

It requires progress, and avoids spurious eftbrts with 
no definite aim. It marks each step in the work of 
both teacher and pupil, and cannot fail to enlist the 
ambition of both the schools and communities. Each 
step in the pupil's progress is noted, and when the 
work is done the diploma is awarded. 

" This plan links in the educational talent of the 
county, and uses it advantageously in the details of 
its work. It thus popularizes the educational work, 
and makes parents equally interested with their chil- 
dren. Superintendents in West Virginia will do a 
great work if they wdll adopt this system in their 
several counties. It would give West Virginia an 
advantage which no State in the Union, so far as we 
now know, possesses." 

Hon. John D. Philbrick, for many years city super- 
intendent of the schools of Boston, and late Educa- 
tional Commissioner from the United States to the 
Paris Exposition, in the following letter gives his 
opinion of the graduating system : — 

36 Dartmouth Street, Boston, Feb. 28, 1879. 

Dear Sir,— I have the honor to acknowledge the receipt 
of your letter of the 22d inst. , with the accompanying copy 
of your report as county superintendent of schools. 

I have read with interest your account of the " graduating 
system," and I cheerfully comply with your request to give 
you my opinion of it. The essential features of the system, 
as I understand it, consist of three elements, namely: — 

1. The classification of the pupils according to their grade 
of advancement, in all the required branches. 

2. A final examination each year, to ascertain what pupils 



WHAT LEADING EDUCATORS SAY. 123 

have satisfactorily completed the prescribed course of instruc- 
tion. 

3. The granting of diplomas to such pupils as have com- 
pleted the course. 

To your system, so far as it embraces these features, I 
give my cordial approval. Wisely administered, it would 
produce, without doubt, very beneficial results. 

I have never before heard of such a system being thor- 
oughly carried out in all its details in the rural districts in 
the country. In its application to city schools the jDlan is not 
novel. The system of classification and graduation has been 
in operation in the common schools of this city from time 
immemorial. About ten years ago the diploma feature was 
added, and it has produced excellent results. It has been 
the fashion here for nearly a century to have, at each school, 
annually, at the time of graduation, a public examination or 
exhibition. 

But the system is liable to abuses, which should be care- 
fully looked after. 

1. The high-iiressure abuse, — too much stimulus, espe- 
cially in the case of girls. 

. 2. The (ramming abuse, — the loading of the memory in 
preparation for an examination. 

3. The competition abuse, — teachers more anxious to put 
through a large number of graduates than to educate them in 
the best manner. 

4. The show abuse, — the showing off of pupils on the 
commencement occasion, and especially young pupils, which 
is the general curse of Sunday-school exhibitions and con- 
certs. 

From your report I feel convinced that you are doing an 

admirable work, and I have no doubt that your county ought 

to be marked as a bright spot on the educational map of the 

country. Very truly yours, 

John D. Philbrick. 
A. L. Wade, Esq., 

Superintendent Schools^ 

Monongalia County , W. Va. 



124 GRADUATING SYSTEM FOR COUNTRY SCHOOLS. 

I desire now to present a letter from a State 
superintendent in the South, giving his opinion of 
the graduating system : — 

Office of State Superintendent of Public Schools, 

Nashville, Tenn., Feb. 25, 1880. 

Mr. a. L. Wade, 

Morgantown, W. Va. 
Dear Sir, — I have read your report with great pleasure, 
and am satisfied that under the supervision of a competent, 
diligent, and active supervisor, your plan for graduating in 
public schools will greatly improve the schools in any county 
or State. 

Yours very truly, 

Leon. Trousdale, 

State Superintendent. 

The following letter from Hon. John W. Simonds, 
late State Superintendent of New Hampshire, shows 
the light in which he views this system : — 

Franklin, N. H., Dec. 5, 1879. 
Mr. a. -L. Wade, 

County Superintendent of Schools, 

Morgantown, W. Va. 

My Dear Sir, — The pamphlet containing your address on 
^' A Graduating System for Country Schools " was received, 
read, and carefully considered. I heartily approve of your 
plan, and have no doubt, if it were generally adopted, it 
would add great interest to our public schools, and prevent 
many of the wastes that now impair their efficiency. 

A lack of interest and many sources of waste have fastened 
their pernicious influences upon the public-school system, 
from the want of an intelligent and well-devised plan for 
directing teachers and scholars in their work. Your system, 
as I understand it, proposes to remedy these defects by estab- 
lishing a well-arranged course of study and providing for 



WHAT LEADING EDUCATORS SAY. 125 

suitable examinations, and at the same time secure a general 
twakening of interest in school-work on the part of teachers, 
scholars , and parents. 

Yery respectfully, 

John ^y. SiMONDS, 
Late State Superintendent of Public Instruction. 

I find tlie following article in the March number, 
1880, of the "Excelsior Quarterly," Farmington, 
Me. It is from the pen of Professor William Har- 
per, of Farmington Normal School. Under the 
heading, " Why not graduate Pupils in Country 
Schools as well as Others?" Professor Harper 
says : — 

"The educational requirements of these days of 
steam and lightning, when ^many run to and fro, 
and knowledge is increased,' are not only greater 
than ever before, but constantly increasing. This is 
so evident to every observer that proof is unneces- 
sary, and it follows that our schools must be kept 
constantly improving, in order to meet the demands 
upon them as well as formerly. But we cannot rea- 
sonably be satisfied even with that, for the schools of 
our fathers certainly were not perfect ; and indeed, 
in view of the interests represented in every school- 
room, it is not too much to say that no school is good 
enough, nor ever will be. 

" Country schools generally labor under various 
disadvantages which do not afiect the village and 
city schools, such as lack of a regular course of 
study, so that the work -is without beginning or end. 



126 GRADUATING SYSTEM FOR COUNTRY SCHOOLS. 

and consequently loses greatly in interest, and the 
same work is sometimes taken over and over with 
little or no advantage to the pupil. There is also 
frequently a lack of efficient supervision, and a small 
and perhaps diminishing attendance. Hence it 
becomes doubly necessary that whatever is practi- 
cable should be done for their improvement. 

" Mr. A. L. AVade, of Morgantown, West Virginia, 
has devised, and in his work as county superintend- 
ent of schools carried into successful execution, the 
common-sense plan of a graduating system, long ago 
successfully applied in all other grades of schools. 
He forms four classes in each school, so far as the 
requisite material exists, to complete the course of 
study and graduate in successive years. The re- 
mainder of the school constitutes the preparatory 
department. Annual examinations wath regular 
commencement exercises are held, and diplomas are 
conferred, but only on those who successfully pass 
the e;s:aminations ; and the names of the graduates, 
with considerable other information regarding each 
school, are published in the annual report. Various 
other means, such as would naturally suggest them- 
selves to an enthusiastic vrorker, are als® employed 
to enlist the interest and co-operation of parents, 
teachers, the press, and the friends of education 
generally. 

" The results have been wonderful ; a true educa- 
tional revival has taken place, and the interest has 
continued unabated during the four years in wdiich 



WHAT LE.ADING EDUCATORS SAY. 127 

the system has been in operiition. Among the defi- 
nite results tire the following : — 

" 1. Increased interest of the pupils. 

" 2. Far greater progress ; all the advanced studies 
prescribed by law (in V\'est Virginia they are 
arithmetic, grammar, history, and geography) being 
completed in less time than one previously. Expe- 
rienced teachers will not think this by any means 
incredible ; and a method which makes the school 
worth more than four times as much to many of the 
scholars, to say nothing of the value of the better 
habits formed, is certainly worthy of a trial every- 
where. 

"3. The attendance increased twenty per cent in 
a single year. 

"4. School discipline is more easily maintained, 
on account of the greater interest of pupils in their 
work. 

"Connected with these results there must be many 
others scarcely less valuable, such as better and im- 
proving teachers, better habits formed by pupils, 
which for very many of them decides the question 
of their success in life, longer terms of school and 
less frequent changes of teachers, more interest and 
co-operation on the part of parents, etc. 

"The State Educational Association of Maine, at 
its recent meeting in Gardiner, after a presentation 
and discussion of the system, indorsed it by the 
following resolution : — 

*' ' Besohed^ That a course of study for all our common 
schools, such as will admit of a regular graduation there- 



1 28 GRADUATING SYSTEM FOR COUNTRY SCHOOLS. 

from, is of the greatest importance, and we would recom- 
mend to all concerned in the management of such schools, 
an examination of Wade's system of graduation in West 
Virginia.' 

" It has also received wide indorsements else- 
where, and is exciting interest from Maine to Cali- 
fornia. The next annual report of the National 
Bureau of Education will contain an account of it." 

Professor F H. Crago, principal of the public 
schools of Moundsville, West Virginia, and lately 
nominee of the minority party of his State for the office 
of General Superintendent of Public Instruction, 
having thorough personal knowledge of the work of 
this system, in an article published in the " Intelligen- 
cer," Wheeling, WestVirginia,March4, 1879, says : — 

" I think I am prepared to speak knowingly, as to 
the workings of Superintendent Wade's system. I 
regard it a great success. I find less opposition to it 
now than two 3'ears ago, larger audiences at exami- 
nations, larger classes, and classes that compare 
favorably with former classes. One excellent fea- 
ture, I notice, is that many of those who graduated in 
former years are still attending school pursuing 
higher branches, and are in attendance at the exami- 
nations, ready and willing to express an opinion 
whenever called on to do so. I give it as my 
opinion that Mr. Wade's plan is the plan to revolu- 
tionize our free-school system. It is attracting 
attention all over the land ; and if our school system 
is made thoroughly effective, something of this kind 
must do it." 



WHAT LEADING EDUCATORS SAY. 129 

I have presented the carefully prepared opinions 
of eminent educators of several States. I offer, in 
conclusion, the views of a number of leading edu- 
cators of a single State. 

The " National Journal of Education," Boston, Jan. 
8, 1880, contains an account of the thirteenth annual 
meeting of the State Educational Association of 
Maine, held at Gardiner, Dec. 30 and 31, 1879, and 
Jan. 1, 1880. Among the proceedings of this asso- 
ciation there is an abstract of a paper on "Wade's 
Graduating System for Country Schools," read by 
Wm. Harper, of Farmington. As the article which 
I have already presented from Mr. Harper's pen 
embraces the leading features of this paper, I will 
present only the discussions which followed its read- 
ing and the conclusions reached by the association : — 

" DISCUSSION. 

" G. A. Eobertson, of Augusta, opened the dis- 
cussion, and favored the idea of havino- ffraduatin^ 
exercises in all the country schools. They would 
tend to hold the pupils in the schools until some 
regular course of study could be completed. Such 
exercises would help to quicken the interest in the 
communities toward the schools and teachers. One 
of the first things to be accomplished in the improve- 
ment of the country school is the establishment of a 
course of study which should be uniform for this 
class of schools throughout the State. 

"Hon. E. S. Morris, State Superintendent, strongly 
9 



130 GRADUATING SYSTEM FOR COUNTRY SCHOOLS. 

favored the plans of Mr. Wade, of West Virginia, 
as far as he understood them, and was decided in the 
opinion that a uniform course of study should be 
adopted. Such action would produce a continuity 
of teaching. Too much time is expended under 
present management in getting new teachers to work. 
Every new term of twelve weeks is half spent in 
finding out what to do. 

"report or COIVIMITTEE. 

"C. C. Eounds, chairman of the Committee on 
Resolutions, reported the following, which were 
adopted : — 

" Besolved, That some system of examination and certifi- 
cating teachers, that shall be effective in seeming qualified 
teachers for all grades uniform throughout the State, and shall 
carry with it an authority recognized throughout the State, is 
absolutely necessary to any marked advance in public in- 
struction. 

" Besolved, That a course of study for all our common 
schools, such as will admit of a regular graduation therefrom, 
is of the greatest importance, and we would recommend to 
all concerned in the management of such schools an exami- 
nation of Wade's system of graduation, in "West Virginia." 



LECTUEE IX. 

THE GRADUATING SYSTEM SUITED TO THE PRIMARY 
SCHOOLS OF CITIES AXD TO^VjJ^S. 

Though the avowed aim of the phm which I 
have been presenting is the improvement of country 
schools, the system is admirably adapted to the 
primary schools of cities and towns. In support of 
this declaration I offer the testimony of a distin- 
guished educator, who has seen the system thoroughly 
tested in the primary schools of a great city. Hon. 
John D. Philbrick, of Boston, in a letter dated 
Feb. 28, 1879, which I have already presented, in 
speaking of the graduating system, says : " In its 
application to city schools the plan is not novel. 
The system of classification and graduation has been 
in operation in the common schools of this city from 
time immemorial. About ten years ago the diploma 
feature was added, and it has produced excellent 
results." 

While Boston and several other cities and towns 
have adopted this system in primary schools, the 
plan is by no means universal. 

When we consider the fact that in cities and towns 
most of the youth leave school before they have 



132 GRADUATING SYSTEM FOR COUNTRY SCHOOLS. 

finished the higher courses of study, and a majority 
of them before they have accomplished even the 
common branches, it is evident that there is need 
of a popular plan which will induce pupils to remain 
in school until a course of study of some kind is 
completed. However desirable it may be to have 
the masses highly cultured, it is not absolutely 
necessary, neither is it at present possible even in 
cities, for all to obtain a high-school education. A 
fair knowleds^e of the common-school branches is 
a necessity, and it is the duty of educators every- 
where to see that all obtain this knowledofe. In 
order to accomplish this desirable purpose, a more 
popular element — an element that Avill move the 
masses — must be introduced into the public schools 
of cities and towns. The laboring classes, especially, 
should be enlisted in the cause of popular education. 
Parents and pupils must be inspired with a zeal in 
favor of a thorough common-school education ; and 
this can be readily accomplished under the graduat- 
ing system. 

The schools of cities and towns, being graded, and 
having the advantages of thorough supervision, are 
already prepared for the introduction of this plan. 
All that is wanted in such cases is an arrangement 
to graduate pupils in the common branches, as well 
as in the higher courses of study. The graduating 
exercises of the common-school department should 
be made as popular as possible. An annual cata- 
logue of each ward school should be puljlished and 



SUITED TO CITIES AND TO^VNS. 133 

placed in every interested family. The names of 
graduates and undergraduates in the common-school 
course should occupy a prominent place iii this 
catalogue. The student of human nature can con- 
ceive of the influence which this catalogue will exert 
in leading pupils to complete a course of study, and 
in prompting parents to take a deeper interest in 
the educational work. 

But the best work of this system remains to be 
seen after the school period is ended. The impetus 
given by habits of study, in this course of training in 
the common branches, not only causes pupils to 
remain longer in school than they otherwise would 
do, but tends to keep up through life better modes 
of thinking. Alumni associations, for the mutual 
improvement of those who have graduated in the 
common branches, should be organized in every 
ward in the city. In addition to the public perform- 
ances at the annual meetings, these associations should 
be organized into reading societies of the common 
people, where pure literature, taldng the place of the 
sensational newspaper of the baser sort, would form 
the mental food for the masses, thereby turning the 
current of popular thought into purer channels. 

The pioneer thinkers of the present day are begin- 
ning to inquire whether it would not be to the best 
interests of society to provide, under the public- 
school system, in all our great cities, for supplying 
young people, even after they leave school, with 
suitable reading matter. I am not aware that any 



134 GRADUATING SYSTEM FOR COUNTRY SCHOOLS. 

public journal has taken ground in favor of such an 
advanced movement ; but the need of something of 
this kind is clearly seen in the following extract from 
an editorial in the IMarch number, 1880, of the 
"Atlantic Monthly." In speaking of public schools, 
the editor says : " Long experience has proved that 
it is a doubtful blessing to teach a man to read, and 
then turn him upon the world to pick up such further 
education as the cheap literature of great cities affords. 
The immense sale of sensational newspapers of the 
worst class proves this fact, and is admitted to be 
one of the most threatening: si2:ns of the times." 

The best interests of society, Avhen left uncared for 
by the law-maker, must be provided for by the 
philanthropist, and this want of reading-matter is 
met in large cities by public libraries ; but public 
libraries avail nothing unless they reach the people. 
What we most need in this direction at present, in 
towns and cities, is a supplement to our public-school 
system for holding young people together as students, 
in organized bodies, after they leave school. In 
order to meet this want, the graduating system 
should be adopted and carefully carried out in all the 
common schools of cities and towns. 



LECTUEE X. 

the graduatmg syste3i considered and com- 
jniended by the national educational asso- 
ciation. 

Finding in the spring of 1879 that the graduating 
system was receiving from the press and the people 
of other States where it had been presented the same 
popular favor which had attended it in West Vir- 
ginia, I sent a copy of my official report to Hon. 
John Hancock, of Dayton, Ohio, who v,'as then presi- 
dent of the National Educatioal Association, asldnor 
his opinion of the system. In his response, bearing 
date April 8, 1879, he says : — 

" I have read your report with much interest, and 
most heartily commend 3^our graduating system for 
primary schools as worthy the consideration of edu- 
cators throughout the country. I make no question 
that the system will serve a very valuable purpose in 
stimulating youth to greater exertions in study, and 
at once prove an incentive to the acquisition of 
knowledge both effectual and healthy.*' 

President Hancock, after expressing an earnest 
desire that this system should be presented at the 
next meeting of the National Educational Association, 



136 GRADUATING SYSTEM FOR COUNTRY SCHOOLS. 

to be held in Phikdelphia the 29th, 30th, and 31st of 
the following July, further says : — 

" Our programme for the general meetings of the 
National Association was about completed when you 
wrote me ; but it is possible there may be a vacant 
place on the programme of the Elementary depart- 
ment, which would be a good place for the presenta- 
tion of this topic. I shall w^rite to the gentleman at 
the head of that department at once, to ascertain 
whether such be the case ; and in case there is, Avill 
recommend him to open a correspondence with you. 
The head of this department is Professor G. P. 
Brown, of Toledo, Ohio." 

Soon after this I received a letter on this subject 
from Professor Brown, of Toledo, in which he sa3^s, 
"The subject is an important one, ai.d I Avill give it 
a place on the programme if I can." 

At a later date I received a letter from the presi- 
dent, asking me if I would accept a place upon the 
programme for the presentation of this subject. In 
accordance with this invitation I prepared and read a 
paper entitled "A Graduating System for Country 
Schools." On the following day, July 31, 1879, 
the General Association adopted a resolution, of 
which the following is an official copy : — 

" At the eisrhteenth annual raeetins; of the National 
Educational Association, held in the city of Phila- 
delphia on July 29, 30, and 31, 1879, a resolution 
presented by Superintendent A. L. Wade, of 
Morganntow, West Viroinia, was, on motion ol' 



THE GHADUATING SYSTEM COMMENDED. 137 

Pi'esident G. P. Hays, of Washington, Pennsylvania, 
amended, and passed by the Association : — 

" JResolved, That the attention of State superintendents o^ 
public instruction throughout the United States be called to 
the propriety of adopting a graduating system for country 
schools. Attest: 

"W. D. Henkle, 

Sec. Nat. Ed. Asso.'^ 



LECTUEE XI, 

OBJECTIONS TO THE GRADUATING SYSTEM CONSIDERED 
AND ANSWERED. 

I PROPOSE in this lecture to consider and answer 
such objections as have been urged against the grad- 
uating system for country schools. From what I 
have observed in the foremost educational journals, 
from what I have seen in the opinions of leading 
educators, and from what I have leurned in my asso- 
ciations with the people, I conclude that the principal 
objections to this system consist of four elements, 
namely : — 

- 1. The graduating system may produce too much 
excitement, and place too heavy a strain upon child- 
hood. 

2. The graduating system may encourage cram- 
ming, and not furnish true education. 

3. The graduating system cannot be successfully 
carried out without thorough school supervision. 

4. Graduation may lead the pupil to conclude 
that he has learned all, and thereby cause him to 
cease to study. 

In attempting to answer the first objection, I desire 
to repeat what I have heretofore stated, that under 
this system none but the older and more advanced 
pupils are permitted to have their names entered for 



OBJECTIONS TO THE GRADUATING SYSTEM. 139 

graduation. Close observation leads me to conclude 
that it is safe to allow a healthful pupil, ten or twelve 
years of age, who has already made a fair start in 
studj^ to uudei-take to complete the common branches 
in four years. It is true that under this system the 
3^ounger pupils look forward with great interest 
to the time when their names will appear in the 
catalogue. This interest, however, is entirely pleas- 
urable ; and it requires no argument to prove to intel- 
ligent people that a considerable degree of pleasur- 
able stimulus is more healthful for pupils than painful 
confinement in the school-room, without sufficient 
motives to study. This objection to the graduating 
system, when applied to country schools, which are 
kept open in many places less than half the year, 
where pupils have plenty of pure air and exercise, 
is but a feeble argument. It may be urged with 
greater force against the graduating system in col- 
leges, academies, and all schools of high order, which 
are kept open nine or ten months of the year, and 
where pupils have but little exercise in the open air. 

In attempting to answer the second objection to 
this system, 1 wish to call attention to the several 
modes of conducting examinations of graduating 
classes in country schools. So far as official reports 
have thrown light upon this subject, three methods 
have been adopted, namely : — 

1. Examinations and commencement exercises, 
conducted by the county superintendent, are held at 
several points in each county. 



140 GRADUATING SYSTEM FOR COUNTRY SCHOOLS. 

2. An exam illation with commencement exer- 
cises, conducted by the superintendent, is held at 
the county seat. 

3. Questions on the various branches are pre- 
pared by the superintendent, and sent, under seal, 
to each teacher ; a written examinatjon is conducted 
on the same day in each school throughout the 
county ; examination papers are sent to the county 
superintendent, who inspects and marks them ; and 
at a commencement exercise subsequently held at 
the county seat, the superintendent grants diplomas 
to those who are found worthy of them. 

In all three of the modes named, the county super- 
intendent either prepares the questions or conducts the 
exercises. It is evident to every thoughtful teacher 
and pupil, that cramming is poor preparation for 
examination, when it is known that a stranger will 
prepare the questions and conduct the exercises. In 
all schools of high order where the instructors them- 
selves examine the graduating classes, the cramming 
or pouring-in system could be more successfully car- 
ried out, without detection, than it could be under 
a graduating system in country schools. 

I come now to consider the third objection to this 
system; viz., "It cannot be successfully carried out 
without thorough school supervision." The evidence 
of educational experts who have testified upon ihis 
subject proves the truth of this charge, and J w^ill 
not attempt to deny it. Instead, however, of this 
being an objection to the system, it is, in the judg- 



OBJECTIONS TO THE GRADUATING SYSTEM. 141 

ment of m;iiiy, an argument in its favor. It proves 
that the S3^stem has the ring of business about it. 
No joint company composed of sensible stockhoklers 
could be induced to employ, from 3'ear to year, two 
or three hundred laborers or operatives, without 
placing over them a skilful superintendent. Skilful 
supervision is everywhere regarded essential in all 
matters of business, and is universally acknowledged 
to be absolutely necessary in schools of high order. 
Then, if every college must have its president, if 
every high school must have its principal, if every 
extensive firm or factory must have its manager, wdiy 
leave the schools of the masses in the hands of 3'oung 
and inexperienced teachers without thorough super- 
vision? If want of skilful supervision in a cotton 
factory will produce bankruptcy, what may we expect 
from the same course in the common schools of a 
county ? The fact that the necessity for supervision 
in country schools is, in many places, at this time, 
unsettled, is proof that these schools have not been 
conducted upon a business basis ; and the fact that 
the graduating system for country schools cannot be 
successfully carried out without thorough school 
supervision, is a strong argument in its favor. 

In conclusion, I invite your attention to the fourth 
and last objection to the graduating system ; namely, 
" Graduation may lead the pupil to conclude that he 
has learned all, and thereby cause him to cease to 
study." This objection, which is not offered by edu- 
cators, but by some parents who have not seen the 



142 GRADUATING SYSTEM FOR COUNTRY SCHOOLS. 

system tested, reminds me of the story of little Johnny 
Eay. Johnny, it seems, had learned his letters under 
the old ABC method, without having any intimation 
from the teacher that these letters are the keys to 
unlock the storehouses of knowledge. The story is 
rendered in rhyme, after this fashion : — 

" He did n't hke to go to school, 
He only wished to play; 
A lesson was a dreadful thing 
To little Johnny Ray. 

" The letters of the alphabet 

Seemed hard as hard could be; 
He toiled and fretted from great A 
Way down to little z. 

*' But work will win. He conquered all 
At last from A to & ; 
Then like a victor home he marched, 
The primer in his hand. 

" ' I shall not have to go to school,' 
Said Johnny, ' any more! ' 
And, like a colt from harness free, 
He capered on the floor. 

" ' Why not? ' asked kind papa, and held 
The boy with kite and bail; 
He answered with an air assured, 
' Because I 've learned it all! ' " 

Johnny's joy at his success was natural. It was the 
feeling of one who had completed an undertaking. 
His pleasure, however, would have been much 
greater, his dislike for school would have been much 



OBJECTIONS TO THE GRADUATING SYSTEM. 143 

less, and his conclusions would have been widely 
different, if he had been taught under more modern 
methods. The time was when country people in 
some places regarded graduation as an end of study ; 
but this view of the subject is now considered by 
most persons as ludicrous as the conclusions of little 
Johnny Eay. 

Experience has proven that habits of study formed 
while pursuing a course for graduation are likely 
to last through life. Alumni associations, holding 
annual meetings for the mutual improvement of those 
who have graduated in country schools, are likely to 
ripen into reading societies, and thereby to greatly 
increase the general intelligence of the comniQn 
people. 

I have, in the course of these lectures, presented 
the needs of our country schools and the aims of the 
graduating system ; I have defined the graduating 
system and shown the mode of its application ; I 
have given a history of its origin, trials, triumphs, 
and growth ; I have taken the official testimony of 
superintendents in three several States who have 
tried the system ; I have reported the action of the 
National Educational Association calling the atten- 
tion of State superintendents to the propriety of its 
adoption ; I have proven -that the plan is suited to 
the primary schools of cities and towns ; and I have 
considered and answered such objections as have 
been urged against the system. In subsequent lec- 
tures I propo e to discuss various subjects of vital 
importance to the educational work of the country. 



LECTURE XII. 

COUNTRY SCHOOL-HOUSES. NEED OF A NATIONAL 

ARCHITECT. 

The country school-house is one of the most im- 
portant elements in our educational work. It is idle 
to expect the highest progress in public education, 
even under the most thorough teachers, if school- 
hpuses are so arranged as to render pupils unhealthy 
or unhappy. The most earnest teachers and the most 
interestinof text-books " become as soundino: brass or 
tinkling cymbals " in school-rooms which are imper- 
fectly heated or improperly ventilated. Mental 
growth, like vegetable growth, is largely dependent 
upon surrounding circumstances. 

Farmers are familiar with the fact that warmth, 
sunlight, and showers are essential to the growth of 
grass and grain. They are aware that the greatest 
industry on the part of the laborer can never make 
up for the want of these elements, and that the appli- 
cation of the most powerful fertilizers, in the absence 
of these essentials, is simply waste of time and money, 
as such soil can produce at best only short-lived, 
sickly plants. 

Millions of money have been expended in efforts 



COUNTRY SCHOOL-HOUSES. 145 

to educate the masses under circumstances not less 
forbidding than would be an attempt to raise grain in 
a forest. Careful thinkers and close observers agree 
that ill-arranged school-houses have, in times past, 
not only restrained mental growth, but greatly im- 
paired public health. 

It is confidently believed, however, that a better 
day has already dawned. Never in the past history 
of public education was there so general an eflbrt, 
as at present, to render school-houses healthful, con- 
venient, and handsome. Men of means are offering 
liberal rewards to architects for the most suitable plans 
for public school buildings ; and the wisest business 
men are taking ground that it pays a county. State, 
or countr}^ to construct school-houses with a proper 
regard to style and finish, as well as to comfort and 
convenience. 

The publishers of the " Sanitary Engineer," New 
York, recently offered the sum of $500, in four prizes, 
to be paid to the parties submitting the four best 
designs for a public school-house. The desire of the 
publi^iers offering these prizes was to obtain a plan 
for a school building which would have an abundance 
of fresh air and no drafts ; plenty of light, without 
the least glare ; and suitable apparatus for warming- 
alike every part of the room early in the morning, and 
never to get too hot or too cold at any part of the 
day. Over one hundred and eighty plans were placed 
on exhibition at the Academy of Design, New York, 
in response to the competition instituted by the offer 

10 



146 GRADUATING SYSTEM FOR COUNTRY SCHOOLS. 

of these prizes. These plans were in the highest sense 
representative, having been contributed by architects 
from all parts of the Union, and also from Canada, 
and one from a Japanese architect. These designs 
were examined by a committee appointed for that 
purpose, and the several prizes were awarded as 
follows : The first prize, $250, was awarded to Arthur 
T. Mathews, of Oakland, Cahfornia ; the second, 
$125, to Samuel F. Thayer, of Boston ; the third, $75, 
to H. C. Koch & Co., of Milwaukee ; and the fourth, 
$50, to R. G. Kennedy, of Philadelphia. 

Accompanying the report of this committee are 
several vital recommendations, from which I select 
the following : — 

1 . " In each school-room not less than fifteen square 
feet of floor area should be allotted to each pupil. 

2. " In each school-room the Avindow space should 
not be less than one fourth of the floor space, and the 
distance of the desk most remote from the window 
should not be more than one and one half times the 
height of the top of the window from the floor. 

3. "The height of a school-room should never 
exceed fourteen feet. 

4. " The provisions for ventilation should be such 
as to provide for each person in a school-room not less 
than thirty cubic feet of fresh air per minute, which 
amount must be introduced a;nd thoroughly distributed 
without creating unpleasant draughts, or causing any 
two parts of the room to differ in temperature more 
than 20° F., or the maximum temperature to exceed 



COUNTRY SCHOOL -HOUSES. 147 

70^. This means that for a school-room to contain 
fifty-six pupils, twenty-eight cubic feet of air per 
second should be continuously furnished, distributed, 
and removed during school sessions. The velocity 
of the incoming air should not exceed two feet per 
second at any point where it is liable to strike on the 
person. 

5. " The heating of the fresh air should be effected 
either by hot water or by low pressure steam. 

6. "The fresh air should be introduce;! near the 
windows ; the foul air should be removed by flues in 
the opposite wall." 

This act of the publishers of the "Sanitary Engi- 
neer" is a step in the right direction, and is worthy of 
great praise. Nearly two hundred architects, embra- 
cing various nationaUties, have thus been led to use 
their highest skill in producing plans for a sanitary 
school-house. 

Want of attention to the laws of life, in the educa- 
tion of our young people, is threatening to make us 
a nation of invalids ; and the public health depends 
more upon the condition of our country school-houses, 
and upon the instructions given therein, than upon 
all other causes combined. Nature has laid down a 
law of life which has no exceptions, namel}^, Warm 
feet and a cool Jiead are essen'ial to good JiealtJi, and 
indispensable to mental growth. 

We may just as reasonably expect to raise cotton 
in a cold climate, as to hope for good health when 
our hands and feet are constantly cold ; and it is quite 



148 GEADUATING SYSTEM FOR COUNTRY SCHOOLS. 

as reasonable to suppose that an artist can produce a 
fii'st-class photograph when his chemicals are impure, 
as to expect the brain to perform high work when 
the blood is chilled in its course every time it reaches 
the extremities. Bathing the extremities in tepid 
water will often ward off an attack of disease ; and 
some of the foreuiost writers of the present century 
have done their finest thinking while their feet rested 
in a vessel of warm water. 

When we remember that heated air always rises, 
we will at once see that it is not an easy matter to 
avoid violating the law of life, by heating the head 
at the expense of the feet. An eccentric educator 
has suggested as a retnedy, that pupils be required to 
stand on their heads. The common-sense plan, how- 
ever, is, to place the heat near the floor, where it is 
needed. 

The almost universal plan of heating country 
school-houses by stoves has done much to impair 
public health. It is generally conceded that heat 
generated by a stove is not healthful ; but even if it 
were, it is too far from the floor, and is not equally 
distributed throughout the room. It is like attempt- 
ing to warm your feet of a cold night, by placing a 
hot brick at your back. I have visited schools where 
the atmosphere which the pupils were breathing 
seemed to me, when I entered, almost as hot as a fur- 
nace, and yet I observed, some distance from the 
stove, ice formed upon the floor. It requires no 
argument to prove that pupils can neither enjoy good 



COITNTEY SCHOOL-HOUSES. 149 

health, nor make fair progress in their studies, if their 
heads are at fever heat and their feet at the freezing 
point. 

In winter, the time when our country schools are 
in session, many pupils come with feet damp, and 
cannot become comfortable if they at once take their 
places far from the fire. It is certainly undesirable 
to have pupils crowding about the stove striving to 
warm themselves, but they must be, in some way, 
rendered comfortable, or they cannot successfully 
recite or study their lessons. Some teachers require 
all pupils to take their places as soon as they enter the 
school-room, and allow no changing of seats during 
the day. In order to warm those who are ftirthest 
from the fire the stove is made red hot, and those who 
sit near it are almost roasted. It is not an easy matter 
to estimate the amount of suffering endured by the 
young people of the country, in a single session, for 
want of a common-sense plan for heating our school- 
rooms. 

If we go to Nature, asking how we ought to warm 
our school-houses, she will point to her plan for 
warming the body, — the circulation of the blood. 
The fact that Nature uses circu latins: fluids for warm- 
ing the bodies of both men and animals, is a clear 
intimation that this is her choice method ; and it is 
strange indeed that we have been so slow in taking 
this hint which she has given us. The stove method 
of warming school-houses is as if Nature had kindled 
somewhere in the body a single fire sufficient to warm 



150 GRADUATING SYSTEM FOR COUNTRY SCHOOLS. 

the extremities. Our present knowledge of Nature's 
Ifiws leads us to the conclusion that such an arrange- 
ment would have rendered the body rather uncom- 
fortable. 

The nearest approach to Nature's plan, that has yet 
been reached, is the method of heating by hot water 
carried through pipes to all parts of the room. Ex- 
amples of this method may be seen in first-class cars 
on any of our leading railroads. Hot-water pipes at 
the feet of each passenger, even in the coldest 
weather, render all parts of the car equally comfort- 
able. 

Heating large buildings by hot water has been a 
popular plan for some time past, but its application 
in a sins^le room is of recent orisrin, and, so far as I 
am aware, it has never been introduced into country 
school-houses. So little has been said on the sub- 
ject of introducing this method of heating country 
school-houses, that I propose to give t^ome of the 
circumstances which led me to conceive and favor its 
universal adoption. 

In the month of Januar^^, 1880, with cold extrem- 
ities, I entered a palace car on the Pennsylvania 
Kailroad. Force of habit led me to draw near to the 
stove for the purpose of warming myself. An ac- 
quaintance tapped me on the shoulder and invited me 
to take a seat with him in the other end of the car, 
stating, at the same time, that I could warm my feet 
by the pipes better than by the stove. Seating my- 
self by the side of my friend, and placing my feet 



COUNTRY SCHOOL-HOUSES. 151 

upon the pipe which passed under the seat in front 
of me, I soon found myself quite comfortable. I had 
frequently travelled in cars warmed in this way, but 
never before had I so fully appreciated the comfort 
and convenience of such an arrangement. 

I soon reached the end of my journey, bade adieu 
to my friend, and left the train, but the recollection 
of that heating apparatus lingered in my mind. I 
said to myself, what a blessing it would be to our 
race if this beneficent arrangement could have a 
universal application. Quick as thought, the idea of 
its application in country school-houses and country 
churches flashed upon my mind. 

Determined to carefully consider the feasibility of 
heating a single room by hot water, I opened a cor- 
respondence Avith a first-class engineer, manager for 
an extensive establishment, manufacturing "heating 
and ventilating apparatus," in a great city. Without 
indicating: the cause which led me to make the in- 
quir}^ I simply asked the engineer if his establish- 
ment could furnish an apparatus for heating, by hot 
water, a single room twenty-eight by thirty-six and 
twelve feet high ; and if so, what would lie the cost 
of such apparatus. In response to my inquiries, the 
engineer wrote me, under date of Feb. 3, 1880, as 
follows : — 

" Our regular car- warmer woidd warm the space you 
name very nicely, and would be very economical as 
regards fuel , burning about one peck of hard coal in 
six hours, and keeping a steady, even heat. Our 



152 GR.U)UATiNG SYSTEM FOR COUNTRY SCHOOLS. 

price for the car-wfirmer, with everything complete, 
pipes, fittings, valves, etc., ready to set up, is $325. 
The above is the cheapest, and in fttct only thing 
we have suitable to warm as small a space as you 
name. You could heat four rooms for a small 
advance on that." 

Finding that the cost of this heating apparatus would 
be a hindrance to its introduction, and believing that 
the price could be greatly reduced, and desiring 
information on other points connected with this plan, 
I wrote again to the same party. His response, 
dated Feb. 20, 1880, was as follows: — 

" You are correct as regards price being greatly 
reduced if it could l:>e introduced simulanteously 
into a number of buildings. For warming rooms of 
the size you mention hot water is cheaper than any 
steam apparatus that could be used, and is a positive 
and even heat, and can be regulated to any degree 
required. Your best plan for ventilating as well as 
Avarming your school-houses would be by indirect 
radiation, that is, place the apparatus in cellar of 
building. This system is a little more expensive 
than direct radiation, but it keeps the air pure and 
changes the entire air in a room every few minutes. 
The cheapest way would be to place the car stove in 
one corner of the school-room, and run pipes horizon- 
tally under the windows ; one coil arranged so fresh 
air from outside could pass over it, become warmed, 
and discharge into room through a grating or register, 
and the foul air exhausted throuirh a chimney-flue, 



COUNTRY SCHOOL-HOUSES. 153 

with 11 register or grating at bottom near the floor. 
This would serve to ventilate as well as warm." 

I will not attempt to give a minute description of 
this heating apparatus. It may be seen and studied 
in any first-class car on most of our leading raiboads. 
I will say, however, that it is not a machine, but sim- 
ply a stove with an arrangement for heating water, 
and sending it on a circuit to all parts of the room, 
and returning it to be heated again. It is as simple 
as an ordinary suction pump, used by our farmers all 
over the land, and it is so constructed that fire is the 
only force needtd. A careful inspection of this 
apparatus will, I believe, convince any candid man 
that it maybe manufactured and sold at a price which 
will make its introduction into country school-houses 
a matter of economy as well as a matter of comfort. 

If railroad companies find that it pays them to 
place hot-water pipes at the feet of each passenger, 
are we not justified in the conclusion that it would 
pay the people of the country to place hot- water 
pipes at the feet of each pupil? The individual, or 
company, that shall furnish, at fair figures, an appa- 
ratus for heating country school-houses by hot water, 
providing for thoroughly healthful ventilation, and 
secure its introduction throughout the country, will 
lessen human suflfering and lengthen human life. 

The usual plan for depending entirely upon open 
spaces at the top of the windows for ventilation, is 
certainly not the common-sense method. A moment's 
consideration ought to convince any one, that if we 



154 GRADUATING SYSTEM FOR COUNTRY SCHOOLS. 

wish to provide a crowded school- room with plenty of 
pure air, we must let the air in low down, where it is 
needed. This we cannot do, in safety, unless we 
have some method of warming the air before it strikes 
the pupils. The plan of heating by hot water fur- 
nishes the means of warming the air as it passes into 
the room. 

Another important matter which should be care- 
fully considered in the ventilation of school-rooms is 
the fact that a considerable portion of the poisonous 
matter thrown from the lungs in breathing, being 
heavier than air, settles, and can be best carried 
away through a chimney flue having an opening 
near the floor. It would be better still if this open- 
ing consisted of a common fireplace, in which to keep 
live coals constantly burning. 

Perhaps the most dangerous impurity connected 
with a crowded school-room is the efliuvia from the 
skin. This poisonous matter settles upon the furni- 
ture and floor, and upon the clothing of pupils. It is 
not, like the gases, subject to the law of difi'usion, 
and the mere opening of a door or window will not 
remove it from the room. The most successful 
manner of removins: this matter from the furniture 
and floor is by flushiny, that is, by opening the door 
and the windows in the front and rear, so as to 
secure, as far as possible, a rush of air through the 
room. This can be done best at recess and noon, 
while pupils are at play, and it should never be neg- 
lected. In order that this work may be well done, 



COUNTRY SCHOOL-HOUSES. 155 

there should be a door in the rear of the room as well 
as in front, or else the windows should come down 
almost or quite to the floor. 

It is idle to expect of pupils the highest progress, 
even under the most thorough teachers, if they are 
not supplied with plenty of pure air. We might as 
Avell feed our children on tainted meat and then expect 
them to enjoy a high degree of health, as to crowd 
them year after year into badly ventilated school- 
rooms, where they are compelled to breathe vitiated 
air, and then expect them to possess strong bodies 
and sound brains, — conditions which are essential 
to success in life. 

It would certainly pay the people of any State in 
the Union to employ a first-class architect, at a fair 
price, to devote at least a part of his time to the 
study of school architecture, and the preparations of 
plans for buildings yet to be erected, and to the 
introduction of the most approved methods of heat- 
ing and ventilating houses which have already been 
built. 

The foremost step that could possibly be taken 
would be the appointment of a national architect, 
who would devote himself entirely to the study of 
school architecture. AVe would not be without a 
precedent in making such an appointment. Bel- 
gium, several years ago, employed one of her best 
architects, and gave him three years to visit other 
nations and make the best model of a school-house, 
with the most healthful arrangements for heating, 



150 GRADUATING SYSTEM FOR COUNTRY SCHOOLS. 

lisflitinir, and ventilation. Thouo^htful educators who 
visited our International Exhibition in 1876, will Ion o^ 
remember the Belgian school-room as the highest 
model of a healthful school-house on the Centennial 
grounds. 

The propriety of appointing a national architect for 
this country is certainly worthy the consideration of 
Congress. It is a matter that ought to attract the 
attention of our wisest statesmen. If the Federal 
government feels an interest in the health, happiness, 
and intelligence of the people, let Federal aid be used 
for the purpose of doing that which single States can- 
not so readily accomplish. 

But in the absence of an official architect it will pay 
the people of any county, where houses are to be 
erected, to procure, at reasonable cost, the best model 
of a sanitary school-house. Where school officers 
are unwilling to expend money in procuring plans, 
they should at least consult the foremost teachers 
and the most intelligent people upon this subject. 
Let each new school-house represent the highest 
architectural skill and the purest taste of the most 
cultured people of the community in which it stands. 

I recommend all who are interested in .school archi- 
tecture to carefully study the suggestions of the 
committee that awarded the prizes offered by the pub- 
lishers of the " Sanitary Engineer." These sugges- 
tions alone, if carefully carried out, would produce a 
happy revolution in our school architecture. 



LECTURE XIII. 

FURNISHMENTS OF THE SCHOOL-ROOM. 

The school-room should be furnished with every- 
thing that is essential to the health and comfort of 
teacher and pupils. It should also be supplied with 
whatever is necessary to a clear understanding of the 
subjects to be studied. 

Perhaps no one thing, in the last half-century, has 
done more to popularize our public school system 
than improved school furniture. School ofBcers who, 
in this age, conclude that it is economy to continue 
the use of the school furniture of their fathers, may be 
honest in their intentions, but they are mistaken in 
their conclusions. 

If the seat upon which a child is placed the first 
day it attends school is uncomfortable, it will form 
an unfavorable opinion of the school-room ; and this 
opinion is likely to grow with its growth and 
strengthen with its strength. It will, as a rule, have 
but little love for the teacher who placed it in such 
an uncomfortable situation ; for there is a law of life 
which leads us to love those who give us pleasure, 
and, if we are not careful, we may be led to hate 
those who give us pain. 

No teacher is likely to be popular unless he can 



158 GRADUATIXG SYSTEM FOR COUNTRY SCHOOLS. 

command the Dieans which will render his pupils com- 
fortable. Let us take a case for the sake of illustra- 
tion. Suppose a school-house is t-o seated that the 
teacher is compelled to place small pupils on tall 
benches, where their feet cannot touch the floor; 
nine tenths of them will go home and tell their 
parents that they don't like the teaclier, when in 
truth the benches are to blame. Or, suppose the 
school-house is so seated that the teacher is compelled 
to place tall pupils upon low benches, where, day after 
day, they lean forward bending the breast bone, curv- 
ing the spine, and distorting every part of the body ; 
is it not natural for these pupils, while suffering, to 
cherish dislike for the teacher who keeps them confined 
in this manner? 

Lessons studied while pupils are suffering leave no 
lasting impressions upon their intellectual natures ; 
and there is great danger, under such circumstances, 
that they will form, not only a dislike for the teacher, 
but a hatred of school and an aversion to books. 

While it is true that very few country school- 
houses of the present day have furniture so anti- 
quated as that used fifty years ago, many of them 
are provided with seats made by a common house- 
carpenter. We do not now think of employing a 
carpenter to manufacture seats even for oar dining- 
rooms. If we wish to promote public health and 
happiness, and encourage the cause of universal 
education, we must supply our school-houses with 
seats and desks bent and shaped to suit the body. 



FURNISHIHENTS OF THE SCHOOL-EOOM. 159 

In addition to seats and desks there are many other 
things which are essential to the school-room. I will 
name some of these essentials : — 

1. Inside shutters hy which hght can be let in or 
shut out, without interfering with ventilation. 

2. Black-boards — a plentiful supply — and eras- 
ers which will not " raise the dust " every time they 
are used. 

3. A clock, placed where all pupils can see it. 

4. Two thermometers, one placed at the warm- 
est and the other at the coldest point occupied by 
pupils. 

5. Blocks for illustrating certain subjects in 
arithmetic. 

6. A good globe, to illustrate the shape and 
motions of the earth, and to show the position of the 
several countries upon its surface. 

7. A Bible and an unabridged dictionary, placed 
side by side upon the teacher's desk, as books of 
reference, to be used whenever needed. 

8. A sweet-toned bell to call pupils from their 
play, and a still sweeter to call them to their class 
recitations. 

Numerous other thins^s will siif2:2:cst themselves to 
the live teacher as they are needed. All necessary 
supplies ought to be provided by school officers, but 
in some sections of the country many things which 
are needed must be furnished by the teacher, or they 
will be wanting. 

As a high degree of success in school work cannot 



160 GRADUATING SYSTEM FOR COUNTRY SCHOOLS. 

be reached without these essentials, let the teacher 
use his best efforts to secure from school officers such 
things as are needed. In case he should not fully 
succeed, I suggest that he may with propriety pay 
for his want of skill by purchasing such essentials as 
he is unable to procure from school officers. If, 
however, he should, term after term, fail to such an 
extent that he cannot aftbrd to furnish what is want- 
ing, he should inquire of himself whether this is an 
intimation that he has not been called to the teacher's 
work. Some one has said that " a great man is one 
who causes things to come to pass"; and I may be 
permitted to add that the clearest proof of a teach- 
er's skill is his success in what he fmdertakes. Our 
real worth as teachers depends upon what we do, 
but not upon what we know ; and the world will give 
us credit for our work, but not for our knowledge. 



LECTURE XIV. 

ORNAMENTATION OF THE SCHOOL-ROOM. 

Fine pictures, in former times, were possessed 
only by rich people. In this age the parlors, sitting- 
rooms, and sleeping apartments of many of the poorer 
people are adorned with better pictures than Avere the 
palaces of kings a few centuries ago. The manner 
in which the home is adorned in this day depends, 
not upon the wealth, but upon the culture of its 
inmates. 

While nearly all pupils in the country come from 
homes Avhich are adorned with pictures, very few of 
them find the school-room ornamented in this man- 
ner. It would perhaps be difficult to tell why teach- 
ers have been so slow to introduce these tokens of 
culture into country school-houses. The uncertain 
tenure of the teacher's office has no doubt had much 
to do in this matter, but even this is not a sufficient 
reason for neo^lectin": to render the school-room beau- 
tiful and attractive. 

Without attempting to argue the necessity of 
making the school-room as attractive as possible, I 
propose to give a plan for introducing pictures into 



ll)2 GRADUATIXG SYSTEM FOR COUXTRY SCHOOLS o 

country school-houses, with very little cost to those 
who accomplish the work. The plan which I present 
is one which I have thoroughly tested. 

While superintending the schools of Mongolia 
County, W. Ya., I observed that the few teachers 
who introduced pictures into their school-houses 
seemed to have no trouble in the government of 
pupils. • The general appearance of these schools 
seemed to be so far above those around them, that 
I resolved to devise a plan for placing pictures in 
every school-room in the county. The plan is as 
simple as it was successful, and I commend it to all 
who may feel an interest in school aisthetics. 

I sent to the city for one hundred neat chromos, 
ten by twelve inches, which cost only a trifle at 
wholesale prices, and I carried several of these with 
me wherever I Avent in my work of visiting schools. 
In each school I proposed to present one of these 
pictures, upon condition that the teacher and pupils 
would promise at least one more for their school- 
room. The proposal accepted, a committee of pupils, 
ladies and gentlemen, appointed l)y the teacher, would 
make choice of a picture, which I then presented to the 
school. The interest in pictures flew in all dn-ections, 
and in many places they anticipated the superinten- 
dent's coming by performing their part of the contract 
in advance. The method adopted to accomplish this 
was as follows : — 

The teacher furnished one picture and gave permis- 
sion to each family, sometimes to each pupil, to fur- 



ORNAMENTATION OF THE SCHOOL-ROOM. 163 

nish one. In rural districts, where pictures were not 
plenty, some pupils clipped them from magazines and 
almanacs. I Avas pleased to see, even in these cases, 
ingenuity and taste in framing them, using, as they 
did, for this purpose, wood, leather, paper, cornstalks, 
shells, autumn leaves, and fern. In other communi- 
ties cultivated mothers, yielding to the earnest ap- 
peals of their children, selected from the parlors their 
finest pictures and purest mottoes for the adornment 
of the school-room. These beautiful pictures and 
mottoes paid their cost in a single session. They 
strengthened in the pupils a love of the beautiful, a 
love of cleanliness, a love of order, and a love for their 
own school. The walls and windows of these school- 
rooms were kept clean and clear of cobwebs, and 
scrapers and mats were placed at many of the doors. 
Cleanliness of person and neatness of attire became 
marked characteristics, not only of teachers, but also 
of pupils throughout the county. The inspiration 
produced by this aesthetic culture was caught by many 
of the less fortunate pupils, and is still shedding sun- 
shine into their humble homes. No man can measure 
the influences of such culture upon the coming genera,- 
tions. 

I can name no field in which a teacher of culture 
can accomplish so much lasting good for the common 
people by the expenditure of so small an amount of 
time and money, as in the work of making the school- 
room more handsome and attractive. From numerous 
authorities which I could call up in support of this 



164 GRADUATING SYSTEINI FOR COUNTRY SCHOOLS. 

opinion, I quote first the language of Ex-Governor 
Hendricks, of Indiana, who says : "I do not know of 
any duty more important for the teacher than that of 
making the school-room pleasant." Rev. Henry 
Ward Beecher, while speaking upon this subject in 
an address before the American Institute of Instruc- 
tion, said: "No church, no cathedral, or rich man's 
mansion ought to be so beautiful as the houses pro- 
vided for the children of the common people." 

But the teacher ought not to attempt to ornament 
the school-room without the help of his pupils. If he 
can induce all of them to aid him in this matter, he 
w^ill find that they will all be more than ever interested 
in the success of the school. If pupils feel that they 
have helped to make the walls of the school-room 
beautiful, they will also take an interest in keeping 
the floor clean. The influence which cleanliness and 
ornamentation exert upon the conduct of pupils may 
be clearly seen by all. It is a rare thing to find dis- 
order in a school-room where the furniture and floor 
are kept neat and clean, and where the walls are 
adorned by handsome pictures and pure mottoes. 
Ornjimentation of the school-room has also a power- 
ful influence in prompting pupils to regular attend- 
ance. Taking it altogether, I can think of no other 
investment that will pay so large a dividend as that 
which is expended to ornament the school-room. 



LECTURE XV. 

SCHOOL-GROUNDS AND SHADE-TEEES. 

It is unwise economy to select a cheap and unsuit- 
able spot of ground upon which to erect a school- 
house. It is equally unwise to have school-grounds 
so small that there is not sufficient room to give the 
sexes separate places for private walks and play- 
grounds. There should also be on every school 
lot considerable space, covered with shade-trees and 
shrubbery. A school-house is a public building, and 
it should, in a proper sense, be the pride of the dis- 
trict in which it stands. 

The taste of the people of any country may, in a 
degree, be measured by the location and architectural 
style of their public buildings ; but their true taste is, 
perhaps, more clearly seen in the extent and condi- 
tion of {he grounds connected with these buildings. 
Xo onfc can visit Washington without being impressed 
with the fiict that the Capitol stands upon the most 
beautiful elevation found at the " City of Magniticent 
Distances." 

As it is a matter in which every citizen of the 
United States feels an interest, I will present a brief 



166 GRADUATING SYSTEM FOR COUNTRY SCHOOLS. 

description of this beautiful building and its sur- 
roundings. It is taken from the '■ Youth's Compan- 
ion," Boston : — 

" No one can go to Washington and gaze upon the 
great white temple of liberty on Capitol Hill, Avith- 
out feeling the heart beat high with pride and pa- 
triotism. Critics may tell us that it will not be a 
perfect building while the central front recedes, — that 
is, until that is built out beyond the fronts of the 
wnngs, — and until the main dome is supported by 
lesser domes that are visible. But nobodj^ cares for 
critics when gazing at the marble pile rising over the 
velvet turf, and lifting its snowy dome, like a cloud 
itself, among the clouds. 

" Wherever you go, in Washington or its neigh- 
borhood, turn about, and there is the dome looking 
over your shoulder. You see it as you approach the 
city, you see it when you are far down the river, 
you see it from Arlington Heights, from the Mary- 
land hills, and out at the Soldiers' Home ; not only 
through the famous vista, where it rises out of the 
surrounding branches all by itself, like a phantom of 
old Rome, but as you look over a charming land- 
scape where the Potomac gleams like a silver thread 
out of the deep blue of the haze on the horizon, and 
the dim classic outlines of the other splendid pub- 
lic buildings, made almost dreamlike by distance, 
give you a doubt if you are on this Western conti- 
nent. 

"The Capitol stands almost in the centre of the 



SCHOOL GROUNDS AXD SHADE-TREES. 



167 



plan of the city. The corner-stone was laid in 1793 
by Washington. The building was of freestone 
from Acquia Creek, painted white, and was origi- 
nally mnch smaller and more symmetrical. It was 
l)urned by the British in the war of 1812, and was 
only rebuilt after a stormy debate in Congress, which 
was assembled somewhere else. But with the growth 
of the country it was found much too small ; the 
extensions were ordered, their corner-stone was laid, 
with Daniel Webster as the orator of the day, and 




THE CAPITOL AT "WASHINGTON. 



they were completed in 1863. The structure has 
cost, ill all, about $13,000,000. 

" One would gather little idea of the size of this 
building by being told that it is seven hundred and 
fifty feet long by three hundred and twenty-five feet 
broad. One might better comprehend it, perhaps. 



168 GRADUATING SYSTEM FOR COUNTRY SCHOOLS. 

on learning that its ground plan occupies three and a 
half acres. 

" As you stand before it, you see that it consists of 
the old building in the centre, a beautiful thing in 
itself, of classic style, connected on each side by a 
corridor of fluted columns with the vast wings, which 
are built of white marble from Massachusetts, and 
are each a temple in itself. The one on the south 
side is the Senate wing ; the other is used by the 
House of Representatives. The whole stands upon 
a ^rustic basement' of granite, and beneath that is 
a sub-basement, hidden by the green turf of the 
terraces. 

"Each of the wings has three porticos of fluted 
Corinthian columns, every column cut from a single 
piece of marble. A carriage-way runs under the 
eastern porticos, by which one enters the basement, 
the middle entrance opening into the crypt ; and on 
the fronts are the most superb staircases of white 
marble that can be imagined, supported by immense 
blocks or buttresses, broad and lofty. 

"As you mount the central one of these flights, 
you observe on the pediment — that is, the pointed, 
gable-like portion above the columns and entabla- 
ture — a group carved in high relief, representing the 
Genius of America replying to flattering Hope b3^ 
pointing to eTusticc holding the Constitution ; a corre- 
sponding group by Crawford occupies the same posi- 
tion on the front of the Senate wing. 

*■ On the flat top of the u})per buttress of the main 



SCHOOL-GROUNDS AND SHADE-TREES. 169 

stairway are two groups of statuary, one represent- 
iiiir Columbus hoklino- a o^lobe, with an Indian ^rirl at 
his feet ; and the other representing Civihzation, or 
the settlement of America, by means of a hunter 
with his dog, saving a woman and her boy from the 
tomahawk of the Indian. 

" The portico itself here is one hundred and sixty 
feet long, and carries twenty-four columns, each 
thirty feet high. In niches at either side of the 
ofreat doors are colossal fio-ures of Peace and War, 
and over the doors is another bas-relief representing 
Fame and Peace crowning Washington. 

"As you pause now and look back, you have the 
Capitol surrounded on every side by an ample space 
of greensward. Directly in front of it stretches a 
paved space in which is Greenough's huge, semi- 
nude statue of Washington, and on either side of 
that, and beyond it, picturesquely enclosed l)y low 
copings of colored stone, is a park exquisitely laid 
out with flowers and urns, fountains and lamps, and 
many trees. 

" Over all this beauty towers the dome, rising, from 
base to crest, a height of three hundred and seven 
feet. As it clears the top of the building, it rests 
first on an octagonal base ; above that it is enclosed 
by cohimns twenty-seven feet high, surmounted by 
a balustrade. At the apex is the lantern, fifty feet 
in height, suiTounded by another row of pillars, 
and on the top of the lantern is Crawford's colossal 
bronze statue of Freedom. 



170 GRADUATING SYSTEM FOR COUNTRY SCHOOLS. 

"This dome is entirely of iron, painted white, and 
weighs a little more than eight million pounds. It 
is supported by solid masonry, and by forty columns 
carrying arches which uphold the floor of the rotunda. 

"It is not by any means the largest dome in the 
world. There are four larger ; but we doubt if there 
is any more beautiful, more buoyant and perfect, as 
you would think if you sometimes saw it early in the 
morning, with the mist streaming away from it as 
clouds are stripped from a mountain-side, or at night, 
when the light burns in the tholus at the summit, and 
shines over the town, announcing that Congress is in 
session, and almost giving it a place among the stars. 

"In summer, sometimes, when Congress sits in the 
night, and the radiance gleams from the dome and 
from all the windows, and the moon shines full upon 
it, the great white splendor, sitting in the dense 
greenery of its trees, has seemed the very p dace of 
light itself. One hardly knows whether it is most 
beautiful then, or when, unlighted above, on a dark 
night, the lamps twinkle in long distances under the 
arches of the outer basement, the lines of columns 
retreat spectrally into the gloom, and the dome soars 
above, a shadow on the shadow of the midnight 
heavens ; or when, on a spring morning, as one 
comes up the avenue, one sees it throned above the 
tree-tops of the western side, that rise from banks 
that are purple w^ith violets. 

"The chief attractions of the Capitol belong to the 
seasons when Congress holds its most important ses- 



SCHOOL-GROUNDS AND SHADE-TREES. 171 

sions, but its outward beauty is best displayed in the 
summer-time." 

But the beauty of this building would be greatly 
marred, indeed almost destroyed, if we would take 
from it its spacious grounds, with their shade-trees 
and shrubbery, their winding walks and rustic seats, 
their flowers and fountains, parks and lakes. Visitors 
from abroad regard the condition of this building, and 
these grounds, as an exponent of the public taste of 
the American people. 

The Legislatures of the several States have shown 
a good degree of taste in the selection of suitable 
grounds upon which to erect State buildings. But 
public taste may be more clearly seen, from year to 
year, in the condition of the grounds connected with 
these buildings. If, in any State, these grounds, 
which Nature has made beautiful, are left un cared 
for until they become uninviting, it is evident that 
the public taste of the people of that State needs to 
be improved. 

A traveller who visits a county town looks at the 
court-house and jail, and especially at their location, 
and at the condition of the pul)lic grounds around 
them, and then forms his opinion of the people of that 
county. His opinion may possibly be incorrect, but 
he has used the best public index within his reach. 

The rule by which we measure the culture of the 
people of a nation. State, or county, has not gener- 
ally been accepted as the true test for measuring the 
taste of the people of a single school district, be- 



172 GKADUATING SYSTEM FOR COUNTRY SCHOOLS. 

cause we have all been slow to believe that the 
average condition of our country school-houses and 
grounds is a true exponent of the taste and culture 
of teachers and school oiScers, parents and pupils. 
In some sections the people have just cause to be 
proud of their school-houses and school grounds, 
while in other places they ought to be ashamed of 
them. Teachers should lead in matters of taste, and 
there is no better opportunity for them to do this 
than for each one, aided by his pupils, to have the 
grounds around his school-house put into condition 
of which all interested persons may be proud. 

In selecting a site for a country school-house, they 
who are charged Avith this responsibility should be as 
careful to perform their work well, as they would be 
if they had been appointed to select a situation for a 
State capitol. The situation of the district school- 
house may, indeed, be to them and to their children a 
matter of much more importance than the location of 
the capitol of the State. The value of the lands and 
the culture of the people of any community will be 
increased by erecting a handsome school-house in a 
prominent place, convenient to all who are entitled 
to attend. But the value of property and the culture 
of people will depend quite as much upon the con- 
dition of school -grounds as upon the style of school 
buildins^s. 

Let us take a case for the sake of illustration : An 
intelligent man desires to purchase a form as a home 
for himself and family. He finds one with which he 



SCHOOL-GROUNDS AND SHADE-TREES. 173 

is at first pleased, but he observes that the school- 
house, which is near by, is situated in a low place on 
a small lot. This lot is not enclosed, and is entirely 
bare. He goes into another community and finds a 
farm which seems, in itself, to be a])out equal in value 
to the former farm. He observes, however, that the 
school-house, which is near by, is beautifully situ- 
ated, and that it bears many marks of good taste in 
its construction. It is embellished with a handsome 
'^upola and furnished with a sweet-toned bell. It is 
surrounded by ample grounds, which are enclosed by 
a neat fence. A part of this lot is adorned with shade- 
trees and shrubbery, and the residue is laid off into 
appropriate places for play. He finds that the former 
farm can be purchased for less money than the latter. 
I ask the question, Which of these farms will an 
intelligent man, under these circumstances, be likely 
to purchase as a home for himself and family ? 

Several matters of importance should be carefully 
considered in the selection of a site for a country 
school-house. I will name some of these. 

1. It should be, as nearly as possible, equally 
accessible to all who arc entitled to attend the school. 

2. It should be a healthful situation, and should 
not be in the vicinity of a swamp. 

3. It should be a beautiful situation, sufficiently 
elevated that the school-house may be seen from afar. 

4. It should be laro'e enou2:h to o^ive the sexes 
separate places for private walks, and to allow con- 
siderable space to be planted in shade-trees and 
shrubbery. 



174 GRADUATING SYSTEM FOR COUNTRY SCHOOLS. 

The school lot should be enclosed by a neat and 
substantial fence. Where there is not a f^pring of 
water convenient to the scho l-house, a well should be 
dug upon the school lot, and convenient arrangements 
for procuring water therefrom should be provided. 
A ladder and two or three extra buckets should be 
provided for each school-house, and kept in a con- 
venient place on the grounds, so they could be used 
promptly in case a fire should occur. The absence 
of anything of this kind has caused the loss of many 
a school-house. 

The planting of shade-trees upon school-grounds is 
no longer considered, by intelligent people, a mere 
matter of taste. It is a matter that has much to do 
with the health, comfort, and progress of pupils. 
Let us take a case for the sake of ilhistration : Here 
are forty or fifty pupils, on a hot da}^, in a school-house 
which stands on a bare lot. The walls and windows 
of the building are heated by the burning rays of the 
sun, and the flushed faces of pupils indiccite that they 
are far from being comfortal)le. It is evident that 
when these pupils are dismissed for dinner they ought 
not to eat in the school-room. It is also evident that 
they should not eat in an open lot under a noonday 
sun. They need, for a few minutes at least, to be in 
the open air, where they are shielded from the sun by 
shade-trees. 

The physical condition of many pupils in warm 
weather is such that they should play quiet games 
and take gentle exercise in the shade, rather than 



SCHOOL-GROUNDS AND SHADE-TREES. 175 

severe exercise in the sun. This is especially true in 
the case of girls. 

But the benefits arising from shade-trees upon 
school-grounds arc not all to be found in the fact that 
pupils are thus shielded from the rays of the sun. I 
will name a few additional advantages. 

1 . Shade -trees produce constant breezes which are 
healthful and pleasurable. 

2. Shade-trees mitigate the heat in their vicinity 
by the condensation of moisture upon their leaves by 
night, and by the vast amount of evaporation that 
takes place through their leaves by day. 

3. Shade-trees either absorb or destroy the poison- 
ous gases and dangerous effluvia Avhich may always 
be found in or around a crowded buildinsr. Shade- 

o 

trees on school-grounds are, therefore, essential to the 
public health. 

In order to prove that shade has an influence even 
in preventing the most fearful epidemics,! offer some 
facts which are matters of history. "In 1859," says 
a certain historian, "cholera raged in Allahabad. 
British soldiers whose barracks were exposed most 
to the sun suffered most from the epidemic ; those in 
barracks surrounded by four rows of trees suffered 
much less ; but not a single case occurred among the 
soldiers whose barracks were in a thicket." 

In order to show the benefits of shade along a pub- 
lic road, I quote further from the same historian : "A 
certain road in India leads for sixty miles through a 
dense forest. Further on it runs for ninety miles 



176 GRADUATING SYSTEM FOR COUNTRY SCHOOLS. 

through a barren plain. Hundreds of persons travel 
the road daily. Now, in the first or wooded portion, 
cases of sickness seldom occur, while in the latter, 
the sick, the dying, and the dead are found lying by 
the wayside." 

In our own country epidemics generally do their 
worst work where people are crowded in buildings 
which have neither grass nor shade around them. 
Our government has recognized the necessity for 
shade-trees, and has been engaged on a large scale in 
promoting the planting of forest trees. Our State 
governments should also take an active part in tree- 
planting wherever there is a necessity for so doing. 
In a section that is bare, the planting of trees is now 
regarded almost as essential to public health as the 
draining of swamps. 

We have now reached the practical part of this 
subject, and I will attempt to answer the question, 
How shall school-grounds be supplied with shade- 
trees? Let me say, first of all, that it is not best for 
school officers to provide and plant trees. This work, 
like the ornamentation of the school-room, should be 
performed by the teacher and pupils of each school. 
In sections of country which are bare of timber it 
may be necessary for school officers to furnish trees, 
but the school should plant them. In sections where 
forests are accessible, no outlay need be made, as a 
sufficient variety of trees may be obtained from the 
forest. 

The following plan for improving school-grounds 



SCHOOL-GROUNDS AND SHADE-TREES. 177 

will, ill the hands of a skilful teacher, make the work 
a matter of real pleasure to all pupils ; and the inter- 
est created will not cease when their school-days are 
ended. Let us take a case for the purpose of illus- 
trating the plan : — 

A teacher of culture commences a country school 
m a house which stands upon a bare lot. After the 
school-room has been made beautiful by pictures and 
mottoes, furnished by teacher and pupils, the teacher 
proposes that they proceed to improve tho school- 
grounds. The first thing to be done is to remove 
all obstructions, such as stumps and stones, if any 
there be, from the lot. The larger pupils, Avith 
mattocks and axes, undertake the work of removing 
these obstructions, and cheerfully devote the time 
intended for play to this work, until it is completed. 
The smaller pupils become interested in the work, 
an^l wish that they could do something to aid this 
improvement. 

The teacher now proposes that each pupil shall 
have the privilege of planting a shade-tree, a shrub, 
or a flower, vipon the school-grounds, and that each 
tree, shrub, or flower shall be cared for and culti- 
vated by the one who plants it, whose name it shall 
bear. All the pupils, from the oldest to the youngest, 
have become deeply interested in the work of improv- 
ing the school-grounds, and each one is anxious to plant 
something. The patrons of the school have also be- 
come interested in this matter, and are discussing the 
propriety of planting shade- trees upon school-grounds. 

12 



178 GRADUATING SYSTEM FOR COUNTRY SCHOOLS. 

It is a subject that many of them have never before 
carefully considered, and the more they think of it 
the better they are pleased with it. 

The proper season for planting trees is now at hand. 
The teacher gives a general invitation to patrons, 
pupils, and school officers to meet at the school-house 
next Saturday, to decide what portion of the lot shall 
be devoted to shade. The mothers of the children 
are especially invited to be present. 

When the day set apart for the meeting arrives, 
the teacher has the school-house open and in order. 
The floor is clean, the furniture is free from dust, 
and the ceiling and corners of the room are clear of 
cobwebs. The walls are adorned with beautiful pic- 
tures and pure mottoes. As the patrons collect, they 
are invited to take a look at the interior of the school- 
room. They are all delighted with the homelike 
appearance which the school-room presents. None 
of them ever attended a school that was half so invit- 
ing, and they do not wonder that their children are 
pleased with the school. 

The teacher, in an informal address, explains the 
object of the meeting, shows the advantages of shade- 
trees and shrubbery upon school-grounds, and con- 
cludes by stating that the school is willing to do the 
work of ornamenting the lot. On motion, a com- 
mittee of ladies and gentlemen of culture is appointed 
to aid the teacher in deciding what part of the school 
lot shall be devoted to shade. 

This committee, after a careful examination of the 



SCHOOL-GROUNDS AND SHADE-TREES. 179 

grounds, recommends that one dozen trees shall be 
planted around the school-house, near enough to 
shield the house in a degree from the sun's hottest 
rays, and yet far enough away to allow the sun to 
dry up any dampness that may collect about the 
house. Stakes are set where these trees are to be 
planted, and the people who are present seem })leased 
with the arrangement. 1 he committee further recom- 
mends that about one fourth of an acre, which is suit- 
ably located, shall l)e devoted to shade-trees, shrubs, 
and flowers, and that the teacher be allowed to judge 
of the number of trees, shru'js, or flowers that may 
be planted upon this particular part of the lot. The 
teacher promises to exercise his best judgment and 
purest taste in carrying out the wishes of the com- 
mittee. He announces that next Saturday will be 
dev^oted to the planting of trees and shrubs and 
flowers. He states that each pupil will be allowed 
to bring a tree, a shrub, or a flower, and that space 
will be found where each may be planted. He ex- 
tends a hearty invitation to all who may wish to be 
present on the day of planting. 

Some one present suggests that if the school of- 
ficers will furnish material for enclosing the lot, the 
patrons of the school Avill meet in one week from 
that time with necessary tools to put up a neat and 
substantial fence. The susrsrestion is seconded by 
the school officers, and approved by all who are 
present. 

The day for planting and fence-building arrives, 



180 GRADUATING SYSTEM FOR COUNTRY SCHOOLS. 

and teachers, pupils, and patrons are early on the 
ground. Mothers have come Avith their little sons or 
daughters, in order to plant something in which these 
little ones will each feel an interest. These cultured 
women, at the request of the teacher, aid in arranging 
the points where trees shall be placed, or shrubs 
planted, or flowers set out. The teacher plants a 
tree in a prominent place, which is to be called the 
"teacher's tree." Every pupil who is old enough 
plants something, and the younger pupils have each 
something planted by their parents. 

Early in the afternoon the fence is finished, and the 
work of planting is completed. It has been a busy 
day, but a happy one, because all have been interested. 
Each one feels that while this work is a permanent 
improvement for the public good, there is something 
in it in which he is personally interested. As the 
patrons prepare to leave the grounds they take occa- 
sion to assure the teacher that he will have their 
hearty co-operation in all his efforts to make the 
school a success. They go to their homes with the 
feeling in their hearts that they have never before 
had a teacher who took so deep an interest in their 
district school. This feeling is the result of the fact 
that the teacher has o^iven them all something: to do. 

The interest in aesthetics created, by this teacher, 
in the minds of the young people of this school dis- 
trict, will increase as the trees and shrubs and flowers 
which they have planted grow, but this interest will 
not cease when these trees and shrubs and flowers 



SCHOOL-GROUNDS AND SHADE-TREES. 181 

shall decay with age. It is impossible to measure 
the foundations of future healthfulness and happiness, 
interest and culture, that have this day been laid. 
Time alone can tell the extent of this teacher's influ- 
ence in a work which would appear to many teachers 
to be entirely outside of his profession. 



LECTURE XVI. 

MUSIC IN COimTRY SCHOOLS. 

** There is in souls a sympathy with sounds, 
And as the mind is pitched, the ear is pleased 
With melting air, or martial, brisk, or grave. 
Some secret chord in unison with what we hear 
Is touched within us, and the heart responds." 

Music should certainly be made a part of the daily 
programme in all public schools. The want of it has 
done much to render our country schools uninterest- 
ing and tiresome to those who attend them. It 
would, perhaps, with a single exception, be impos- 
sible to find another important organization having no 
music on its programme. Let us look at this subject 
long enough to see whether the country school, with- 
out music, really is an exception to the rules of civil- 
ized society. 

All Christian denominations, with a single excep- 
tion, have music mingled with their sacred services, 
and all social orders of a high character have music 
interspersed with their beautiful ceremonies. Music 
is heard in the Sunday school, and it is heard in the 
social circle. It is heard in the mass meetings and 
public processions of all political parties. It is heard 
in the army upon the land, and in the navy upon the 
sea. It is heard amidst the din of battle in time of 



MUSIC IN COUXTHY SCHOOLS. 183 

war, and it is heard on the day of thanksgiving, when 
peace is proclaimed. It forms a part of the solemn 
ceremonies of the funeral, and it adds to the festivities 
of the wedding. It is heard in the streets of the city, 
and along the lanes in the country. It is heard in 
the palaces of the rich, and in the cabins of the poor. 
A love of it may ho seen in the face of the infant as 
it listens to the music of its mother's voice. In 
universities, colleges, and schools of liigh order, and 
in the most progressive primary schools of cities and 
towns, music forms a part of the daily programme. 
Yv^herever people — young or old, cheerful or sad, 
rich or poor, learned or unlearned — are gathered to- 
gether, having the privilege of making their own 
programme, there is always music. It seems to be 
essential to life. 

In many of the most progressive countries of Eu- 
rope, nmsic is made one of the branches in the com- 
mon-school course of study ; and far-ofi Japan, some 
time since, undertook to introduce elementary music 
in all the common schools of that country. The 
Emperor of Japan sent to the United States and se- 
cured the services of Mr. Luther W. Mason, who 
had been for fourteen years special instructor of mu- 
sic in the schools of Boston. Mr. Mason left this 
country late in the year 1879, to enter upon the im- 
portant work of introducing music into all the pub- 
lic schools of Japan. 

In this country there is a growing sentiment in 
favor of mnkino: music one of the branches in the 



184 GRADUATING SYSTEM FOR COUNTRY SCHOOLS. 

common-school com-se of study. The most pro- 
gressive step in this direction has been taken in Cal- 
ifornia, where the Legislature has made music a com- 
pulsory branch in all the public schools of the State. 

In several other States music forms a part of the 
daily exercise in many of the country schools, but 
in most cases, Vv^here it is found, it is there simply 
by accident, and is liable to be left out when there 
is a change of teachers, or upon the complaint of 
objectors. 

It is universally conceded that children should 
first of all be taught that which they will practise in 
after life. If this be true, they should be taught to 
sing. Again, it is generally agreed that they ought 
first to study that which will afford them most pleas- 
aie and profit in after life. If this bo true, they 
should study mu -ic along with reading and waiting. 
Music, as a branch of study, should certainly pre- 
cede in importance English grammar, though both 
are essential, and neither should be neglected. 

Most persons concede the fact that the young peo- 
ple of the country should be taught music, but there 
are some who maintain that this branch should be 
studied outside of the school, under instructors who 
make music a specialty. They insist that there are 
but few persons who are well fitted to teach music, 
and that only those who are highly qualified should 
perform this work. I answer that the same might 
be said of penmanship. There are persons who 
make this subject a specialty. They are much bet- 



IVIUSIO IN COUNTRY SCHOOLS. 185 

ter prepared to advance pupils in this art than the 
average teacher, and yet no one would, for this rea- 
son, maintain that writing should not bo a branch in 
the common-school course. Every teacher who has 
had experience in such matters is aware that the 
organization of a class of pupils in penmanship or 
music, outside of the school, has a demoralizing 
influence upon the work of the school to which these 
pupils properly belong. I have known schools to be 
almost broken up by the formation of a " singing 
class " outside of the school. 

I may also say that music taught as a special sub- 
ject, outside of the school, is so costly that the poor 
cannot afford it. This of itself, it seems to me, is a 
sumcient objection to the system of special instruc- 
tion. Therefore, if we vrish the masses to have a 
knowledge of music, we must make music a part of 
the work of our common schools. 

By some it may be argued that the study of music 
in country schools is impracticable, from the fact that 
so few of our teachers have secured a musical train- 
ing. I answer that this objection may be urged 
ag:iinst the introduction of any new branch of study. 
Let music be made one of the branches of study, 
and teachers will prepare to give instruction on this 
subject. I am aware that it may be maintained that 
there are many teachers who cannot become good 
singers. I answer that there are many teachers who 
cannot write a good hand, and some of them cannot 
read well. Let music stand as other branches, and 



186 GRADUATING SYSTEM FOR COUNTRY SCHOOLS. 

if the musical qualifications of the teacher are too 
low, let him be rejected, or let him agree to furnish 
a substitute for teaching music. We sometimes find 
among pupils one fully competent, vvho will cheer- 
fully take charge of the class in music. 

I would not propose that music should be taught 
in country schools as a fine art or a profound 
science ; neither would I be willing that its study 
should occupy largely the school hours. With 
fifteen or twenty minutes' instruction and exercise at 
the opening of the school each morning, a great 
improvement will be made in a few months, and an 
interest in music will be created which will become a 
matter of pleasure to teacher and pupils. This exer- 
cise in music each morning will have a tendency to 
diminish tardiness and increase the attendance of 
pupils. The exercises of the day should also be con- 
cluded with music. 

A writer in the Philadelphia "Times," on music in 
the public schools, gives the following reminiscences 
of the beginners in Boston fifty years ago : — 

"It was my fortune to be a member of the Hawes 
School, South Boston, in 1831, while Joseph Harring- 
ton was its teacher, and through his wonderful tact of 
introducing new and profitable ideas into that school, 
music was first taught publicly, an anti-swearing 
society was formed, a library founded, and other 
novel works established. By some means the city of 
Boston was induced to test, in a year's study, tlie 
introduction of vocal music into one of its schools as 



MUSIO IN COUNTRY SCHOOLS. 187 

a trial, to see if it in any way interrupted the other 
teachings. The celebrated teacher and musical com- 
poser, Lowell ]Mason, was our teacher. The first 
portion of the programme, after Mr. Mason's entering 
our school, was to grade the scholars as he found 
them : Good singers, Xo. 1 ; not so good, No. 2 ; 
so on to No. 6, or no singers. At the start the 
number in the first class was about fifteen out of a 
school of three hundred scholars ; a very large pro- 
portion went in the No. 1 class, and only a very 
small number were in class No. 6. He perfectly 
demonstrated four facts : — 

" First, that vocal music, with instrumental accom- 
paniment, did not in any way or manner retard 
scholars from learning their ordinary studies. 

"Second, they learned more rapidly and readily 
than before. 

"Third, it increased the size of the respiratory 
organs, thereby improving their health. 

"Fourth, it improved them morally. 

" The next year music was introduced into all the 
public schools of Boston." 

Accordin^f to the method of teachinci: music in the 
public schools of Boston, the voice and ear should 
be thoroughly trained by practice before the pupil 
attempts to read music. In order that I may not be 
misunderstood in this statement, I v/ill give the lan- 
guage of Prof. H. E. Holt, musical instructor of the 
public schools of Boston, which language I copy from 
'' The New England Journal of Education," of that city. 



188 GEADUATIXG SYSTEM FOR COUNTRY SCHOOLS. 

Prof. Holt says : " The object of instruction in 
music in the primary schools should be to develop 
the musical nature by training the voice and ear, 
and developing the sense of rhythm. What the child 
learns of language during the first five years of its 
life is a preparation for learning to read. No one 
would think of attempting to teach a child to read 
before it could talk. It would be equally absurd to 
attempt to teach a child to read music before it could 
sing. Children should first learn to sing, as they 
first learn language, purely by imitation." 

I am aware that the above method of teachinsf 
music will not be approved by those who insist that 
children should be taught to read music l^efore they 
are trained to sing. But as the people of Boston 
have given special attention to this subject, and have, 
probably, made greater proficiency in music than the 
people of any other city on the continent, the system 
which they practise in teaching music in primary 
schools is certainly worthy the consideration of all 
who feel an interest in this subject. 

A class of sixteen girls, from the Boston public 
schools, led by Prof. Holt, sang before the American 
Institute of Instruction, at its late meeting: at Sara- 
toga, and their singing was, by competent judges, 
considered excellent. It was there publicly stated 
that they had been trained under the system of sing- 
ing by imitation. After the voice and ear have been 
thoroughly trained, they will, of course, be taught to 
read music. This seems to be the natural method of 



MUSIO IN" COUNTRY SCHOOLS. 189 

teaching music, and yet there may be some teachers 
who think they cannot successfully carry it out. 
Let each teacher, therefore, thoroughly study this 
•subject, and then adopt that plan by which he can 
best teach his pupils to sing. 

The extent and thoroughness of the study of music 
in each school district depends largely upon the quaU- 
fications of the teacher, and the interest which he 
feels in this subject. In some sections, vocal music 
alone will not satisfy the wants of the school, and 
by the contributions of patrons and pupils A cabinet 

ORGxiN" W^ILL BE ADDED TO THE FURNITURE OF THE 
SCHOOL-ROOM. 

An organ can be purchased for a small sum, and 
the demand for instrumental music in the country is 
increasing, so I venture to predict that the time is 
not distant when an instrument will be considered as 
one of the essentials in every school-room. The 
sound of an organ in connection Avith vocal music 
adds to the interest of the opening and closing exer- 
cises of the school. It is well to have the older 
pupils, who are able to preside at the organ, take 
this place by turns ; and if any pupils play upon 
other instruments which harmonize with the organ, 
and which are in good standing with the community, 
they should bo invited to bring these instruments 
and join in the daily exercise. The more interesting 
these exercises become, the more anxious will pupils 
bo to attend the school. If the number of instru- 
ments should make a " band of music," so much the 



190 GKADUATINQ SYSTEM FOR COUNTRY SCHOOLS. 

better, as there will then be no need of a compulsory 
school law. 

I am av/are that some of the sweetest-toned instru- 
ments, by being often found in bad company, have, - 
in many places, become unpopular. As the choice 
of company has been made by the owner, I think we 
could safc'ly admit these instruments into the school- 
room "on trial," or so long as they produce no dis- 
order. Public sentiment, however, should be con- 
sulted on this subject. I believe that the time will 
come when every musical instrument which man has 
made will be tuned to the praise of God. 

In some sections of the country prejudices exist in 
the minds of many against music of any kind in pub- 
lic schools. In such cases the teacher should sum- 
mon to his aid those who favor music in schools, and 
they can readily create a public sentiment in its 
favor. It will not, as a rule, be best for the teacher 
to force music into the school contrary to the wishes 
of the patrons. It is not, however, a difficult mutter 
to convince most persons that there is no time lost by 
having music in school, morning and evening. 

Let the teacher illustrate this by referring to the 
fact that when we have but an hour to spend in Sun- 
day school we do not regard it a waste of time to 
devote one fourth, or even one half, of that hour to 
music. Let him ask how many would be willing to 
attend Sunday school if there was no music connected 
with the exercises from beginning to ending. The 
tira^j allowed for religious services in Christian 



MUSIC IN COUNTRY SCHOOLS. 191 

churches is almost half devoted to sacred song, and 
no one regards this time wasted. It is certainly 
evident to every one that if Sunday schools and 
churches would exclude all music, superintendents and 
clergymen would soon feel the need of " compulsory 
laws and truancy acts," to fill vacant chairs and 
empty benches. 

Music will do more to collect a scattered crowd 
than the voice of the orator. People, young or old, 
cultured or uncultured, will come together if called 
by the sweet strains of music. It is not, therefore, 
unreasonable to suppose that the introduction of 
music into all our country schools would do more to 
increase the attendance of pupils than compulsory 
laws could do. Indeed^ I can name no other one 
thing that would so popularize our system of public 
instruction as the introduction of music into all our 
primary schools. 

Many of the lower animals will collect in flocks or 
herds, if called by music. Shepherds, in ancient 
times, when watching their flocks, were accustomed 
to play upon the harp to prevent the sheep from wan- 
dering. The modern practice is to place a sweet- 
toned bell upon one of the sheep, and then the entire 
flock vv^ill follow the bell, in order to hear its music. 
It is said that the boys who are engaged in herding 
cattle on the great plains in the South have learned 
that they can save labor by moving quietly alj day 
long among the herds, humming low tunes. Cattle 
are not inclined to wander avfay, say these boys, if 



192 GRADUATING SYSTEM FOR COUNTRY SCHOOLS. 

there is music in the midst of the herd. At night 
the boys rest with the cattle upon the phiins, and in 
case of a sudden noise, as, for example, a clap of 
thunder, when the cattle are suddenly startled and 
Vviien there is prospect of a general fright, the boys 
rise and commence humming their low tunes. The 
cattle, upon hearing the accustomed music, suppose 
all is right, and quietly lie down to rest. Historj^ 
furnishes numerous examples of the power of music 
over various kinds of animals ; but I will not further 
follow this particular part of my subject. 

There is music in a sweet-toned school bell, and 
it^ tends to collect pupils just as the bell upon a sin- 
gle sheep tends to call the flock together. "The 
church-going bell" pays its cost in the additions 
which it makes to the congregation. So fully is this 
influence understood, that sometimes, in cities, a 
set of bolls tuned to a musical scale is placed upon 
the church, and the " chime of bells," the sound of 
bells in harmony, will collect a congregation even at 
unseasonable hours. 

But the best results arising from music in the 
school-room do not consist of increased attendance 
of pupils, but of improved conduct and character. 
Pure music not only pleases the ear, but it improves 
the heart. No one can listen to pure music without 
feeling a desire to be better. 

Y^'^ords which are set to music may be immoral, 
but music itself is pure, it is divine. The present 
generation of youth is certainly fortunate in having 



MUSIC IN COUKTRY SCHOOLS. 193 

SO many excellent published collections of songs suit- 
able for the school-room, from which to make selec- 
tion. These song-books are generally cheaper than 
other school books, and it is as important for each 
piq')il, ivho can read, to have his own singing hook, 
as it is for him to have hisoivn reader. 

Most of the studies in the common-school course 
appeal more to the intellect than to the heart, and, 
as pure music tends to improve both manners and 
morals, it should occupy a prominent place upon the 
programme in all our public schools. 

Perhaps I cannot conclude this subject to better 
advantage than by presenting the following article 
from "The National Journal of Education,'' Bos- 
ton : — 

" It has been urged that music is a branch of study 
more ornamental than useful ; which can bo dispensed 
with altogether, or the expenditure in its behalf be 
greatly reduced. Yet, as a matter of flict, no such 
claim is made among prominent educators, or by 
those best informed on matters pertaining to public 
instruction. On the contrary, here in Massachusetts, 
music never stood higher on the list of studies than 
now ; was never so thoroughly taught as now, never 
so justly appreciated as now. Our University, with 
its professor of music, within the year has found it 
necessary to employ in addition a tutor in singing, 
' and is granting diplomas to such as successfully com- 
plete the course prescribed. 

" The Empire of Japan has just concluded a con - 



194 GRADUATING SYSTEM FOR COUNTRY SCHOOLS. 

tract with Mr. L. W. Mason, late superintendent of 
music in the schools of Boston, to introduce our sys- 
tem of musical instruction into that country. Ar- 
rangements are making at Tokio, on the most liberal 
scale, to furnish the means and appliances needed in 
the line of his profession, to promote his personal 
comfort, and to add dignity to the office he assumes. 

"Music has become, may we not say, the chief 
amusement of the people? As such it is innocent, it 
leaves no sting behind ; and it is not every amuse- 
ment of which this can be predicated. The love for 
it, moreover, in the househokl is limited only by the 
amount of talent in that direction possessed by the 
members of the family, or by their ability to procure 
for themselves the means of its gratification. 

"But it would be taking a partial view of the 
matter were we to regard it merely in the light of a 
recreation. As a branch of study its value is beyond 
question. It cultivates the ear, informs the taste, 
trains the faculties of the mind, develops and invig- 
orates the powers of the body. Of what other study 
can this be affirmed in an equal degree? Viewed 
simply as a resource for earning one's living, it is 
safe to say that a knowledge of music gives direct 
support to a vastly greater number of men and 
women than does an acquaintance with any one of the 
so-called higher studies pursued in our schools. 

" Consider the interests of music in their financial 
aspect. See the amount of capital invested in the 
manufacture of pianos, organs, band and orcliestral 



MUSIC IN COUNTRY SCHOOLS. 195 

instruments ; the printing and engraving of sheet 
music and musie-books ; the various newspapers or 
journals devoted exchisively to musical matters ; the 
fabulous sums lavished upon distinguished singers or 
players, who fill our largest halls at their concerts 
with eager listeners. 

" There has been heard here, this season, an art- 
ist who received for singing a couple of songs more 
than three hundred dollars ; while orchestral plaj^ers 
have been paid for an hour's w^ork twenty-five 
dollars each. Members of church choirs obtain 
for their services from two dollars up to thirty 
dollars a Sunday. . Boys from our grammar schools, 
even as low as the fourth class, are en2:a2:ed in the 
choirs of Boston and vicinity, where, in addition to 
the instruction given them, they receive salaries 
corresponding to the degree of talent they manifest. 
Five dollars, for a couple of hours spent in church at 
the organ, is not uncommon. 

" A professional man, whose fees amount to one 
hundred dollars a day, is looked upon as quite suc- 
cessful ; a merchant, who clears the like sum of 
money, may v/ell congratulate himself as being in 
prosperous circumstances. But there are singers 
able to command twice as much for every appearance 
they make before the public. It is within the mem- 
ory of some of us that Jenny Lind contracted with 
Mr. Barnum to sing one hundred nights in America 
for one hundred thousand dollars, and he never com- 
plained of the bargain. 



196 GRADUATING ' SYSTEM FOK COUNTRY SCHOOLS. 

" A single song, the production of Dr. Arthur 
Sullivan, V\^hieh may have cost him only a foAV hours' 
labor, has yielded its proprietor an annual in- 
come of two thousand live hundred dollars. A 
second song of his, ^ The Lost Chord,* well 
known in our concert-rooms and parlors, has 
proved a fortune in itself. 'II. M. S. Pinafore,' a 
work of the same composer, which has gone the 
length and breadth of the land both here and abroad, 
— a clean, charming, wholesome composition, ad- 
mired alike by artist and amateur, — has been a 
mine of wealth to many a manager and publisher, 
besides aiTordinsr delisfht to thousands of hearers. 

"Music-seliing and music publishing houses in this 
country, if we consider the magnitude of their busi- 
ness and the variety of their publications, stand sec- 
ond to none the Avorld over. 

" Pianos and parlor organs are almost as common 
as tables and bureaus ; or, at least, it may be said 
with truth that a house without a musical instrument 
of some sort is a rarity. A family in which there is 
no music, and no love for it, must certainly be ac- 
counted unfortunate in that respect. 

" See how largely dependent we arc upon the Ger- 
mans in filling the ranks of our bands and orchestras ; 
because, music having been so many years a regular 
study in their common schools, enjoying all the time 
the highest consideration in the community at large, 
they have become superior to us in the art, and are, 
for the present, beyond our competition. 



MUSIC IN COUNTRY SCHOOLS. 107 

"Look at our conservatories and colleges of music, 
which already surpass those of Europe in the number 
of their students, and bid l;iir, in due time, to rival 
them also in the excellence of the instruction fur- 
nished, as well as in the talent and proficiency of 
their graduates. 

" The complaint is sometimes made against our 
schools, that children are not taught what will be of 
practical use in after-life. V/hat is learned of some 
subjects, it is said, needs to bo so modified before it 
can be available in practice, that, aside from the men- 
tal discipline thereby secured, it may be a question 
whether time so spent could not be better employed 
in other ways. Such is not the case with music. 
Whatever is gained in that direction, though it be 
only the power of singing the scale, is immediately 
useful, and will form one of the inevitable steps to 
be taken sooner or later if one desires to become a 
musician. 

" Given the requisite amount of talent, with corre- 
sponding application under competent instruction, 
and the pupil finds himself in the possession of an ac- 
complishment more or less adequate to his support in 
life, while leaving him opportunity to attend to other 
business But whether he turn this acquirement to 
account pecuniarily or not, his knowledge and skill 
in the art will continue an unfailino: source of delisfht 
to himself and friends as long as life and health 
remain. 

" Is there one of us who, when his son leaves school 



198 GRADUATING SYSTEM FOR COUNTRY SCHOOLS. 

to take his place in society, would not be glad to 
know that he had gained a taste for music, and some 
knowledge of it? Should we not consider it, in 
some sense, as a safeguard to restrain him from the 
pursuit of other and less salutary modes of enjoy- 
ment? Where there is music at home, and an appre- 
ciation of it, the various forms of dissipation, to 
which, for want of something better to occupy their 
leisure hours, the young are so prone, will lose their 
charms, and fail to make felt their pernicious attrac- 
tions. 

" All this goes to show how deep a root music has 
taken among us, how rapidly it is growing, how 
widely extending, and how it demands — and rea- 
sonably, too — a fostering hand and liberal support 
from those who are charged with the administration 
of the interests of public education." 



LECTURE XVII. 

THE DICTIOXARY IX THE SCHOOL-ROOM. 

I:n^ the school-room, as on the farm and in the 
workshop, some things are mere matters of comfort 
or convenience ; some are intended to lessen labor, 
while others are absolutely essential to success. The 
patrons of our public schools will agree that, first of 
all, the furnish ments of the school-room should 
include such things as are indispensable in the work 
of gaining a thorough knowledge of the common 
branches. 

As a simple illustration of the thought which I 
desire to present, I may say that on the farm the 
mowing-machine is an important implement, — a 
labor-saving machine ; but it is not absolutely essen- 
tial, as the ordinary scythe may do well the work of 
the mowing-machine. The plough is an essential 
imjylement on every farm, as nothing else can take 
its place or do its work. Any sensible farmer who 
wishes to engage in raising grain and grass, if called 
upon to decide whether he will do without a plough or 
a mowing-machine, will at once decide to do without 
the latter. If he is unable to purchase either, and a 



200 GRADUATING SYSTEM FOR COUNTRY SCHOOLS. 

friend proposes to make him a present of one or the 
other — his choice of the two — for his own use, he 
will choose the plough, although he is aware that the 
mowing-machine sells for the most money. 

In the school-room the blackboard serves a very 
important purpose ; it saves an immense amount of 
labor, and some may say that it is essential to suc- 
cess. But when we consider the fact that, in the 
absence of the blackboard, the same work may be 
done upon slates, wo conclude that the blackboard, 
though important, is not indispensable. 

A dictionary, giving the proper pronunciation and 
a complete definition of all the words of the English 
language, is not only important, but absolutely essen- 
tial, in every school-room. It is to the school-room 
what the plough is to the farm, — the foundation of 
success. No substitute for it has ever been found, 
and it is evident that much of the work done in any 
school-room that is without it must necessarily be 
mere "guess-work." 

It is folly to argue, as some have done, that teach- 
ers in our country schools ought to be so familiar 
with the pronunciation and definitions of words, that 
they may wdth safety undertake to teach without a 
dictionary before them. The finest scholars, and the 
most thorough teachers in the higher institutions of 
learning throughout the land, tell us that, in their 
work of instruction, they make the dictionary a 
constant companion. No well-qualified teacher will 
claim that he can do first-class work without a 



THE DICTIONARY IN THE SCHOOL-EOOM. 201 

dictionaiy as a book of reference for himself and 
bis pupils. It is the one weapon witb which every 
true scholar, who wishes to be strong, must be con- 
stantly armed. 

But some of the patrons of our public schools may 
honestly ask, What benefits are to be derived from a 
dictionary in the school-room? Among the many 
advantages which might be named I may rely upon 
three principal ones, namely : — 

1. All members of the school may learn to spell 
correctly by forming the habit of looking in the dic- 
tionary, to see the correct spelling of all words about 
which they are in doiibt, before using them in com- 
position. 

2. All members of the school may be led, by the 
use of the dictionary, to form the habit of pronoun- 
cing correctly all words which they see in reading or 
which they use in writing or in conversation. 

3 . All members of the school may be led to form 
the habit of looking to the dictionary in order to 
learn the exact meaning of the words which they see 
or hear, about which they are in doubt. 

Perhaps no one will doubt the necessity for correct 
spelling, as the meaning of words in a letter or a 
contract may depend upon the way these words are 
spelled. But some persons may ask, Where is the 
need of such precision in pronunciation ? 

I may answer that it has been truly said, that 
"hardly any one thing so publicly marks and distin- 
guishes the unrefined and uncultivated from the 



202 GRADUATING SYSTEM FOR COUNTRY SCHOOLS. 

refined and cultivated, as inaccurate and inelegant 
pronunciation." A man whose pronunciation is in- 
accurate and inelegant may read extensively, he may 
even become a professional man ; but whether he ap- 
pears in the pulpit, on the platform, or in the social 
circle, his pronunciation will constantly attract atten- 
tion, as do stains upon a costly garment. 

No one will deny the fact that all young people 
ou^ht to have a clear knowledsre of the meanins: of 
such words as they see in reading or use in writing 
or in conversation. They cannot read, or write, or 
converse, or even think, to the best advantage, unless 
thev have a correct knowledo^e of the meaning: of the 
words which are used. 

It is the duty of those who are charged with the 
interests of public education to place a dictionary 
in every school-house. The discharge of this duty 
would insure to the nation a hi<2:her desrree of intelli- 
gence and a broader culture. In many places pu]:)lic 
schools have already been supplied with dictionaries, 
and there is almost everywhere a growing sentiment 
in favor of this work. 

I suggest that where the school officers decline to 
furnish a dictionary for the school-room, the teacher 
may, with propriety, appoint a committee of pupils 
to solicit contributions from the patrons ; or they 
may arrange an interesting literary entertainment, 
and charge an admission fee sufficient to purchase a 
dictionary. 

In selecting a dictionary for the school-room, care 



THE DICTIONARY IN THE SCHOOL-ROOM. 203 

should be taken to ol)tain the best. A small diction- 
aiy should not he selected, as the vocabulary and 
definitions in such a book will be incomplete and un- 
satisfiictory. We have, in this country, only two 
unabrido^ed dictionaries, — Webster's and Worces- 
ter's, — one of which ought to bo placed in every 
school. It should be a part of the regular furniture 
of the school-room, for the benefit of the whole 
school, accessible alike to the teacher, and, under 
proper regulations, to every scholar capable of deriv- 
ing benefit from consulting it. 

But then, as it is obvious, no one copy, nor several 
copies of a work of this kind, can meet all the wants 
of all the pupils, since nearly every scholar should 
find frequent occasion to consult his dictionary on 
minor points, and will often have occasion to refer to 
it in his own seat, or to take it home to aid him of 
an evening there, every scholar past the most element- 
ary branches, and beyond the age of six or eight, 
should have his or her own dictionary in an abridged, 
portable form. 

In order that I may present this su1)ject in the 
clearest light possible, I will offer the opinions of 
some of the foremost thinkers connected with the 
educational work in this country. The first article 
which I offer is from the pen of one of the publish-' 
ers of Webster's Unabridged Dictionary ; but this 
fact will in no way Aveaken its force with people who 
think for themselves : — 

" Every mtelligent teacher will readily concede the 



204 GRADUATING SYSTEM FOR COUNTRY SCHOOLS. 

importance of having each of his pupils furnished 
with a good dictionary of the language. The faculty 
of speecJi, with which man is endowed by his Creator, 
and written language, arc among the crowning excel- 
lences which distinguish him from the brute creation. 
They form the garb in which his rational thoughts 
are clothed, and constitute the medium through 
which he communicates those thoughts to the minds 
of others. Without them, the treasures of knowl- 
edge which an individual may acquire must remain 
forever locked up in his own breast, and his own 
intellectual stoi'es be limited to his self-obtained and 
very imperfect acquisitions. The past can make to 
them no additions, nor can he communicate them to 
those around him, — much less transmit them to the 
future. 

" Words, therefore, a written and spoken language, 
form the great instrument to be employed in acquir- 
ing or communicating ideas. It becomes, then, 
obviously important, in order that this instrument 
may be employed skilfully and successfully, that we 
possess it in as great perfection as is attainable, and 
know perfectly how to use it. How can I thor- 
oughly understand the mental conceptions of another, 
unless I know fully the meaning of the words he 
employs in giving them expression, and unless his 
utterances, and my understanding of them, are coin- 
cident? Otherwise, errors, confusion of ideas, and 
blunders interminable, must be the result. 

"It follows, therefore, that while the scholar, in 



THE DICTIONARY IN THE SCHOOL- ROOM. 205 

pursuing any other given l)ranch of study, as of 
niiithematics, or natural or mental philosoplij, needs, 
specially, only the text-books appropriate to that 
particular department, yet, in all his studies, the dic- 
tionary should be his constant and intimate compan- 
ion. From the very first hour when he begins to 
employ words in combination, — nay, from a still 
earlier period, since orthography and pronunciation, 
taught by his dictionary, have to do with words in 
their isolated forms, — on through every stage of his 
progress, up to the highest atttiinments in science of 
wliich the human mind is capable, the wise and 
reflecting scholar will have constant recourse to his 
standard lexicon, and find its treasures continually 
.available. 

"It is related of Daniel Webster, that on being 
inquired of what authorities he consulted, or what 
course he adopted, in his preparation for his great 
forensic efibrts, he replied that he consulted his 
dictionary. 

"Yet the opinion has been expressed that, in pro- 
portion to the number of pupils, a less number of 
dictionaries will now be found in our schools than 
formerly. The introduction of a great number of 
studies, once unknown in our common and higher 
schools, may have contributed to this result, if such 
a result have really followed, and thus important 
elementary studies, lying at the foundation of all 
others, be in danger of being overlooked. Docs not 
the introduction of these higher branches, on the other 



206 GRADUATING SYSTEM FOR COUNTRY SCHOOLS. 

hand, render still more important the possession, by 
every scholar, of a good English dictionary ? 

" Let us look at this matter a little more in detail. 
Is there a single study, in which the scholar can be 
engaged, above the simple learning of the alphabet, 
and the spelling of words in their primitive forms, 
which follows (the spelling book affording for this 
object a partial substitue for the dictionary) , in which 
he ouo'ht not to have a constant reference to the 
latter ? 

"Take, first, the reading exercise. iSTo reflecting 
teacher supposes that reading — giving vocal utter- 
ance to the written language of an author, so as to 
do full justice to that author's conceptions — can be 
intelligently taught by merely requiring a parrot-like 
compliance, on the part of the pupil, with certain 
prescribed rules for reading ^ — here to give the ris- 
ing and there a falling inflection of his voice, here 
to pause while you could count one, and there two, 
etc., and in this manner to indicate all the tones and 
cadences of the voice by stereotyped, fixed directions. 
How can the cver-varj^ing emotions of the human 
soul, and the corresponding expression of those 
emotions by the human voice, appropriately em- 
ployed by one in reading aloud the recorded thoughts 
of another, be thus formally indicated ? 

"Is not this, rather, the true philosophy? The 
scholar must first possess himself of the exact 
thought of his author. lie must know the precise 
meaning of every word in the sense in which that 



THE DICTIOXARY IX THE SCHOOL-ROOM. 207 

author employs it, and that author, it is to ])e in- 
ferred, will have employed correct and appropriate 
laniruajre. The si£2:nification of each ^vord, if not 
otherwise understood, he must learn from his diction- 
ary. He must also learn the relation of one word to 
another, or the construction of words in sentences. 
He must become thus thoroughly imbued Avith the 
spirit and meaning of the writer. Then, general, 
simple rules, the instructions of the living teacher, 
and practice, must do the rest in forming a graceful, 
effective reader. 

" Take the study of English grammar. Is it not 
perfectly obvious that a correct knowledge of the 
precise import of every word is necessary, in order 
to a correct grammatical analysis of any given sen- 
tence? The same word is often used, now as one 
part of speech, and now as another, — hero a noun, 
and there a verb ; in this connection a conjunction, 
in that a [)ronoun ; here the word is an adverb, there 
an adjective, and so on. The dictionary, therefore, 
hardly less frequently than the grammar, must bo 
consulted in the preparation for the parsing exercise. 

" And so we might proceed through the whole 
course of Eni^lish studies. In mathematics, a full 
and clear perception of the exact meaning of a term 
is absolutely essential to a right understanding of the 
chains of reasoning employed, and an error here may 
be fatal to the whole process. Is not every teacher 
made often aware that many of his scholars either have 
DO lucid perception, or wholly fail to understand 



\208 GRADUATING SYSTEM FOR COUNTRY SCHOOLS. 

the import of such words as proportion, cancel, 
inverse, ratio, and many other terms employed in the 
ai'ithmetic they are studying? So in physiology, 
logic, rhetoric, natural and mental philosophy, his- 
tory, and every science. 

"How many persons, young and old, fail to 
appreciate the beauties of an author, or entirely 
misconceive his meaning, from want of a right 
imderstandino:, in their nice shades of thou2:ht, of the 
words he employs ! The gratification they would 
otherwise experience from a fine composition is thus 
proportionably lost. 

" But not only do many persons, from this cause, fail 
of a correct appreciation of the thoughts of others, 
hut they likewise have very little power of commu- 
nicating their own. They at best express vaguely or 
inaccurately their own ideas, and so have very little 
power, either by written or spoken language, of 
influencing their fellow-men ; while he who is well 
skilled in the use of language wields a power and 
possesses an influence, an ability to persuade or con- 
vince men to his own views, entirely unknown to one 
lacking this qualification. IS^or is this a kind of 
knowledge only occasionally available ; it is in diily 
and constant requisition. Indeed, how could the 
eloquent orator, as Webster or Clay, or th3 gifted 
poet, like Willis, clothe, with ' thoughts that breathe,' 
* words that burn,' unless he had entire command, in 
their full import, of these instruments of thought, 
the words in which they must find expression? How 



THE DICTIONARY IN THE SCHOOL-ROOM. 209 

else could he so effectively stir up the deep fountains 
of feeling in tlie soul of the reader or listener? 
What wonder that these men of commandinar "renins 
and master minds, as we liave seen, have constant 
reference to the dictionary ! Nor is such an attain- 
ment as has been described, the power accurately to 
understand and readily to employ the words of a lan- 
guage, made without effort, constant and protracted. 
The dictionary is the expositor of words. Its busi- 
ness is to giv^e accurately and unmistakably their 
orthography, pronunciation, and meaning; and, 
rightly appreciating the importance of a correct 
knowledge of words, Avhat work can be more prof- 
itably made a daily study ? And could a thorough 
and uniform understanding!: of the meaninsr of words 
become universal, how many discussions would be 
shortened ; how many disputes avoided ; how greatly 
mankind benefited ! " 

I desire next to present some excellent suggestions, 
made by Dr. Joseph Emerson, long and extensively 
known as an accomplished teacher, in his Introduc- 
tion to Dr. Watts's "Improvement of the Mind." 
His remarks are earnestly commended to every one 
having anything to do with the mental training of 
the young. 

"There is," says Dr. Emerson, "probably no 
other branch of literary education of equal impor- 
tance that is so neglected, or imperfectly taught, as 
defuilnj^ — no other that has now such demands upon 
the attention of teachers. It is often astonishing and 

14 



210 GRADUATIXG SYSTE^M FOR COUXTRY SCnOOLS. 

grievous to see how grossly ignorant are children and 
youth, and even men and women, of the meaning of 
important words and phrases, — an ignorance which, 
in general, they are very far from feeling or mistrust- 
ing. They cannot express their thoughts, for want 
of words, and often they express thoughts very dif- 
ferent from what they intend, because they do not 
understand the words they employ. And very fre- 
quently, from the same cause, they take no idea, or 
wrong ideas, from what ihey read and hear. Prob- 
ably more than three foui'ths of the disputes that 
have troubled the world have arisen from the igno- 
rance or misapprehension of words. 'No doubt one of 
the greatest reasons why so Yittlo good is effected by 
preaching is, that the language of the preacher is but 
very imperfectly understood by most of the hear- 
ers. Said a venerable and pious lady to her little 
grandchild, just recovering from sickness, 'Now you 
must be thankful.' But the poor child did not know 
— could not guess — the meaning oithanlcfuJ , and was 
afraid to ask. So her excellent instruction was lost 
upon the child, at least for years, till he ascertained 
the meaning of the word. So it is, no doubt, v/ith a 
great part of the instructions that parents and teach- 
ers, as well as ministers, give to those under their 
care. 

" A remedy for these various and abounding evils 
is devoutly to bo wished and sought. What is it? 
Proper attention to the exorciso of defining is doubt- 
less ono of the remedies, and perhaps the best of all. 



THE DICTIONARY IN THE SCHOOL-ROOM. 211 

And it would be easy to show that all other methods 
must be inefiectual to gain an accurate knowledge of 
words, at least of many words, without this. 

" But the exercise of defining may not only prevent 
much evil, but eifect much positive good. When 
properly attended to, it is one of the best exercises for 
improving at once tLe memory and the judgment, and 
storinof the mind with useful knowledcre. And when 
a good acquaintance with language, I mean the ver- 
nacular language, is once acquired, this knowledge is 
one of the best aids ever devised by human ingenu- 
ity to assist the reasoning faculty in the search of 
truth. Wo make much use of words in thinkinir, 
especially in close thinking ; and it is perhaps impos- 
sible to pur.-ue a train of thought, to any consider- 
able lens^th, without their aid. But how often do we 
impose upon ourselves, and draw wrong conclusions, 
by imperfectly understanding the words we silently 
and perhaps insensibly use, or by using them in dif- 
ferent senses. And how often do we think in words, 
of which we have no definite understanding, flat- 
tering ourselves that we are nobly investigating 
thoughts and things, while, in reality, we are only 
making progress in pride and darkness. As words 
are only the signs of thoughts and things, and the re- 
lation of things, so it is very important, in order to 
improve our acquaintance with thoughts, things, and 
relations, that we should have a very clear and cor- 
rect knowledge of the meanings of words, or objects 
which they represent. This cannot l)e gained by 



212 CRADUATING SYSTEM FOR COUNTRY SCHOOLS. 

nttendin£>: to tlic manner and connection in wliicli 
words are used, whether written, printed, or spoken. 
This will often leave the sense very vague and inde- 
terminate, or positively wrong. 

"^?i acquaintance icitJt oilier languages ivill not 
give us a correct knowledge of English xvords. For, 
in the first place, all the English words derived from 
these three hinguages do not constitute one fifth part 
of our language. 

"In the second place, there is scarcely an instance 
in which a knowledi^e of the oris^inal word can <2:ive 
us any precise idea of the meaning of its derivative. 
The fact is, that the meaning of almost every word 
includes several ideas ; and when we borroAV a word 
from another language, we scarcely ever use it to sig- 
nify just the same ideas denoted by its original. For 
example, our words, cap^ captain, caption, capital, 
capitol, capitation, decapitate, all are derived from 
caput, — a head. But they all differ in signification 
from cajmt, as well as from one another. There is, 
indeed, some resemblance among the significations of 
all. This makes it a little easier to learn and to 
retain their meanings ; but an acquaintance with 
these various meanings cannot be gained, but from 
other sources. The same might be shown by multi- 
tudes of other examples. Hence it has come to pass 
that iise, and not derivation, is the law of lano-aaire : 
and hence our word virtue has by no means the same 
signification as its original, virtus. Hence, too, it 
has come to pass that a knowledge of the original 



THE DICTIONAllY IN THE SCHOOL-ROOM. 213 

word has often led the unwary youth to misunder- 
stand and misuse its derivative of different meaninoj. 

"It is the grand object of the dictionary to tell us 
the sense or senses in which our words are used by 
good writers and speakers. To learn the meaning of 
words, then, must constitute a capital part of a good 
education. It should he begun as soon as tlie child 
can distinguish between one word and another, and 
continued as Ions: as sio^ht or hearino: continue. The 
chief, study in this pursuit is that of defining, i^rin- 
cipally in the use of a dictionary . The best way of 
pursuing this study is doubtless in connection with 
other studies, — to learn and fix in the mind the defi- 
nitions of the most important words, as they occur. 
Tho instructions of ths lessons will greatly assist to 
fix in tho mind the definitions, and the definitions to 
fix the instructions. To promote this exercise it is 
tboiiglit needful to have a large number of cjucstions, 
to bo answered by definitions. But the pupil should 
not content himself merely with learning these. He 
should consult his dictionary for the meaning of 
every word that he does not clearly understand. 
Let him also consider the connection, and endeavor 
to gain the exact import, not only of each word, but 
also of each phrase and sentence, as he proceeds. In 
this way, though his progress from page to page 
will be slow, 'especially at first, yet it will be sure, 
and exceedingly conducive to mental improvement 
and the acquisition of knowledge." 

The following article from the pen of President 



214 GRADUATING SYSTEM FOR COUNTRY SCHOOLS. 

Porter, of Yale College, is so able, appropriate, and 
convincing, that I present it as the concluding argu- 
ment upon this subject : — 

"It is acknowledged by all to bo very desirable 
that every school and every scholar should be fur- 
nished with the best English dictionary. No one 
doubts that it is well that the large dictionary should 
lie upon the teacher's table, and that some one of the 
smaller dictionaries should be in the hands of every 
scholar. 

" But how shall they bo used ? How can they be 
used to result in the "greatest advantaofo? Is it 
enough that the large book should repose in the sol- 
itary dignity of an oracle, ready to answer any ques- 
tion that is forced upon its notice, about the spoiling, 
pronunciation, derivation, and meanings of the hard 
words which come up in the school recitations ? Is 
it enough that the pupil should be taught to resort to 
the dictionary by his side, whenever, in his private 
studies, he is at loss in respect to any of the points 
which we have named? TJieso objects are very good 
indeed. They are quite suiEcient to reward all the 
pains which is taken to provide our schools Vvdth 
works of this kind. 

" Is this enough ? Can nothing more be attempted 
wdth the hope of success? Does the teacher dis- 
charge all his duty when he makes an occasional ref- 
erence of this kind to the standard before him, or 
when he exhorts his scholars to do the same ? We 
think not. More than this can be done in the way 



THE DICTIONARY IN THE SCHOOL-ROOM. 215 

of systematic efforts to train the scholars to the 
constant use of these books of reference. JMany 
teachers attempt this. They require of their classes 
in spelling to give the definitions of a few words in 
every lesson. Some require very young children, as 
soon as they are old enough to write, to write out 
definitions in a copy-book, and to learn these defini- 
tions by heart. This is generally a severe and 
unpleasant task. The young scholar finds tJte defi- 
nition to be nearly if not quite as unintelligible 
as the word itself, and both are too often words, and 
hard words too, — "" dictionary words^ as they are 
sometimes expressively termed. 

" It requires a mature mind to take very much 
interest in a dictionary, or to resort to it of its own 
accord. Special and well-directed efforts are needed 
in order to make tlie study of it pleasant and prof- 
itable. Such efforts, we are persuaded, may ])e 
made, and it is with the hope of leading to such 
efibrts that the foilowiuof suij^srestions are offered. 

" The great end of stud3dng a dictionary is to 
train the pupils to the study of words. The teacher 
should aim, with all his patience and skill, to make 
his scholars attend to the words which they use, — to 
understand them in all their force and beauty, as 
expressive of thought and feeling. It is not enough to 
spell and pronounce them correctly, to apply them 
to the right objects, to use them in the right connec- 
tion, and to avoid grammatical blunders. This 
knowledge is desirable in its place ; it is even neces- 



210 GRADUATING SYSTEM FOR COUNTRY SCHOOLS. 

smy, but it is not all that is to bo aimed at. It is 
only a preparatory to that which is of greater conse- 
quence. Words are living things only when they 
arc parts of the sentence. They cannot be fully 
understood except as seen in their connection. 
^Vhen they are separated from one another they are 
no more alive than a bone or blood-vessel is alive 
when it is cut ofi' from the body of which it was a 
part; no more aUve than a leaf, or a flower, or a 
twig is alive when it is separated from the tree 
and scattered upon the earth. 

" The dictionary must be used in the study, not of 
dead, but of living words. The dictionary must 
teach the scholar how to use words as they occur in 
sentences. To show what can be done in this w^ay, 
we suggest the following exercise as a daily lesson : 
Let a word or two be selected as the lesson for the 
day. Let the scholars be directed to prepare to give 
as many sentences as there are definitions of the 
"word, in each of w^hich one of the w^ords given as 
the definition shall be prominent. Let this be done 
sometimes with preparation and sometimes without 
preparation. In this way the attention of the class will 
bo directed to the shades of meaning: that distinguish 
the words which are ordinarily considered synony- 
mous, lie will see that a difierence in the connection 
makes all the diiiercnce conceiv^able with respect to 
the use of the w^ord. The greater proprietj^ and 
beauty of the use made of a word by one scholar 
over that made by another, Avill suggest lessons con- 



THE DICTIONARY IN THE SCHOOL-ROOM. 217 

ccrning tlio force and beauty of laiigiiuge in general, 
and make the exercise teach composition and style. 
When the lesson is done, and all the su2:2:estions and 
ini^uiries about the various senses of the word are fin- 
ished, then the teacher should open the large diction- 
ary, and read, at length, the extended definitions, and 
the full illustrations which it contains. In view of 
all the li2:ht suirsrested by looking at the word in 
actual use, as a part of a sentence, and as a part of 
very many sentences, all these definitions will be 
clear and intelligible, and the word or words wliich 
have been studied for the day will be ever after full 
of interest to the pupils. 

" Xor if, this all. A few such lessons as this will 
teach the pupil how to use the dictionary for himself, 
and how to put meaning into the definitions given 
in the dictionary. A word separate from its con- 
nection, or rows of words looked out in a dictionary, 
from the columns of a spelling-book, can never 
excite such interest. Nor is it enough to take words 
in our school or private reading, in sentences made 
by others, and search out their meaning. The pupil 
must construct the sentences for himself, he must 
create by his own powers, he must apply the word in 
order fully to appreciate it. Then will it be a living 
thing. It will be a living sprout with a living root, 
planted in the moist earth ; not a dry twig stuck in 
the dry sand-heap, to stand for a moment and be soon 
plucked away. 

" This is not all. Every word has a liistory of its 



218 GRADUATING SYSTEM FOR COUNTRY SCHOOLS. 

own, and that history tho pupil should loarnto trace. 
It was first used ia a simple moaning, probably it 
was a picture word, representing some familiar ob- 
ject or action in nature. The worvds rights wronj, 
apj)rehend^ comprehend, imagine, resolve, and thou- 
sands like them, were first applied to something seen 
with the eye and handled with the hand, and by 
changes easily, but gradually, made, have come to 
signify the remote and abstract things or acts for 
which they are so freely used. 

'' The dictionary gives these meanings somewhat in 
their order. It traces them from their humble oriorin 
and application up to their higher' uses. It illus- 
trates the successive steps by which they have ad- 
vanced in the various uses to which they are applied. 
The teacher may know something of this history of 
single words. If his attention has not been directed 
to it, ho may obtain much light on the subject from 
Trench on the * Study of Words.' From that book 
he may learn what treasures of knowledge are hid in 
his dictionary, and tliat these treasures only need to 
be mined for the good of his scholars, with a little 
patience and skill. There is no exercise more profit- 
able to advanced classes than the lessons in the 
changes of meanings which words have undergone. 
They will learn that the history of a single word is a 
history of the thoughts and feelings of multitudes of 
men who have used it, and that changes are all the 
while going on in the words which are in actual use 
at the present time. The adroit and skilful teacher 



THE DICTIOXAIIY IN THE SCHOOL-llOOM. 219 

can show how new words are continually coming into 
being, such words as loafer, filibuster, free-soiler, 
bloomer, bloomer-hat, propeller, young America, old 
fogy, and what is their origin. 

"If scholars reflect on the words which they use, 
they must learn to think. These living messengers 
of thought are flying from mouth to mouth every 
instant that we live. They drop from thousands of 
pens, in glistening pearls that are woven into ])race- 
lets of beauty. They attract or repel. The}^ win or 
they ofiend'us. They are used by the intelligent and 
clear-headed thinker to influence thousands of his 
fellows to good thoughts and useful deeds. Happy 
is the teacher, and happy the pupil, who are led to the 
thoughtful study and the intelligent use of the words 
of his native En2:lish tonsrue." 



LECTURE XYIII. 

HOW TO HAVE A LIBRARY IN EVERY SCHOOL-ROOM. 

The actual wealth and enterprise of the people of 
each State in the Union are about in proportion to the 
degree of intelligence and culture which the masses 
have attained in these several States. Wherever the 
masses arc ignorant and uncultured, there are poverty 
and want ; and wherever the people are intelligent 
and cultivated, there arc enterprise and wealth. 

But the study of the text-books used in the common 
schools of the country can never, of itself, produce 
that degree of intellectual strength which the masses 
must possess in order to insure public prosperity. 
The mind, like the body, demands daily food in order 
that it may increase in strength, and regular reading 
is the surest method of producing mental growth. 
Universal reading, therefore, is the surest method of 
producing universal intelligence. 

In childhood, the desire to gain knowledge is as 
universal as the desire to take food ; and if young 
people were provided regularly with reading matter 
to suit their taste, as parents provide their children 
with suitable food, reading would be to them as pleas- 



A LIBRARY IN EVERY SCHOOL-ROOM. 221 

urablc as eating and drinking. But observation and 
experience prove that the habit of reading, if formed 
at all, is generally formed early in life. 

When we consider that many homes have no libra- 
ries, and that few family libraries contain books 
suited to the taste of childhood and youth, we can 
readily account for the fact that, in many places, the 
masses have not formed the habit of reading. They 
were not furnished with suital)le readinsr matter vvhile 
iheir habits were forming. It is evident, then, that 
if we wish to lift the masses to a higher level — if 
^ve wdsh to raise up a generation of readers and 
thinners — Ave must, in some way, provide suitable 
reading matter for all young people. 

There is no other method by which the masses can 
be so generally reached, and by which the }'outh of 
the country can be so readily induced to read, as the 
plan of having a library in every school-room. 

The question, then, for consideration is, shall we 
have a library in every school-room, and if so, how 
can we obtain it? I answer, we should have a 
library in every school-room, and we can obtain it 
from patr(.ns and pupils w^ith but little cost to any 
one and with pleasure to every one. I will present 
a plan for procuring books which requires only a lit- 
tle skilful management on the part of the teacher. 
It is this : Let the teacher lay the foundation of a 
lil)rary, just as he would introduce pictures into the 
school-room, or as he would plant shade trees upon 
school grounds, namely, by permitting each one who 



222 GEADUATING SYSTEM FOR COUNTRY SCHOOLS. 

i;3 interested to take stock in the enterprise. To be 
more specific as to the method, I will say : — 

1 . Let the teacher contribute one volume to the 
library. 

2. Let the teacher encourage each pupil to con- 
tri])ute one volume. 

3. Let the teacher appoint a committee of the 
larger pupils, ladies and gentlemen, to solicit con- 
tributions of books and monej^ from the citizens of 
the district. 

4. Let the school give a public entertainment 
and charge an admission fee for the purpose of ob- 
taining: additional funds. 

5. Let all money, contributed or collected, be 
used in purchasing suitable books and periodicals 
for the school library. 

6. Let the teacher obtain printed labels, and let 
each book contributed be labelled with the 

Name of donor 

Date of donation 

Valfie of hook 

Condition {ne>v^ soiled^ or shelf-worn) 

7. Let the teacher use the local paper or papers 
of the county to make known the names of contrib- 
utors, and the character and amount of each con- 
tribution. 

8. Let there be a laudable ambition on the part 
of the teacher, pupils, and patrons of the school, to 
have the best school library in the county ; and let 



A LIBRAHY IN EVERY SCHOOL-ROOM. 223 

this purpose be made known through the public 
papers. 

The foregoing plan, if skilfully carried out, will 
produce a fair beginning for a school library ; and 
the same method may be repeated with increasing 
interest and pleasure, from year to year. 

During the school term, the library should be 
mainly under the control of the teacher ; but a libra- 
rian, and other officers, should be elected, and ar- 
rangements should bo made to let out books at stated 
times, embracing the season when the school is not 
in session. In this way the school library may be 
made fx permanent institution^ wnd men of means may 
be led to contribute liberally to its support. 

I find, in " The New England Journal of Educa- 
tion," Boston, a communication from a teacher on the 
subject, "How to start a School Library"; and I 
here present it for the consideration of those who 
wish to study the best methods for accomplishing this 
work : — 

" Noticing the above query in a recent number of 
'The Journal,' I thought I might interest its readers 
by staling how we started our library. 

"I first mentioned the matter to the school, and 
asked the pupils to talk with their parents about it. 
I told them that all who contributed twenty-five cents 
should have their names enrolled as founders of the 
library ; that each one should pay a cent a week for 
the privilege of taking out books, or fifteen cents 
for six months. I also asked them all to see at home 



224 GRADUATING SYSTEM FOR COUNTRY SCHOOLS. 

if they had not some books that were old to them, 
but that would bo new to others. 

" I contributed a ^ School History of England/ a 
delightful 'Child's History of the United States' 
(given me by a book agent), and the history of 
'Old Abe' (bought at the Centennial). The chil- 
dren contributed over twenty books, all good and in 
good condition. They contributed and collected 
$8, and I collected over $2 by asking the different 
friends whom I met, ' Won't you give me live cents 
toward our school library ? ' 

"In order to get the most for our money, we first 
subscribed for ' Wide- A wake ' and 'The Nursery' 
for six months ; wo then invested about four dollars 
in cheap reprints of standard works, such as miiy be 
found in the Seaside and Franklin Square Libraries, 
and Harper's ' Half-Hour Series ' ; also several little 
paper-backed picture books for the little folks, in- 
cluding a five-cent copy of ' Mother Goose.' The 
remaining four dollars we spent for books on natural 
history, travels, etc. 

" Our library has now been in operation two 
months, and, though only in its infancy, is a success. 
AVe have over one hundred volumes : among these 
are several on history and biography ; some of 
Scott's, Dickens's, and Miss Muloch's ; 'Arabian 
Nights,' 'Swiss Family Robinson,' and 'Robinson 
Crusoe.' Some of the more valual)lG works are only 
lent, but we are making good use of them while we 
have them. Several volumes of old magazines were 



A LIBRARY IN E\^ERY SCHOOL-ROOM. 225 

contributed ; these I stitclied together by means of an 
awl and coarse thread, and they are quite in demand. 

"In conclusion, I will only add that the best way 
to accomplish any desirable result is to have faith 
that you Avill succeed, and then go to work." 

The school law of New Jersey provides that the 
State treasurer, upon the order of the State superin- 
tendent, is authorized to pay $20 to any school that 
shall raise a like sum, by subscription or entertain- 
ment, for the purpose of establishing a school library, 
and ^-10 annually thereafter on the same condition. 
I have before me the last three annual reports (1877, 
1878, and 1879) of the State superintendent, contain- 
ing some important facts and figures concerning the 
operations of this law, which I offer for consideration. 

In his annual report for the year 1877, the superin- 
tendent says : — 

"The number of school districts in the State is 
one thousand three hundred and sLxty-seven. Three 
hundred and thirty-four districts have school libra- 
ries, sixty- live have made the first addition, forty- 
three the second, thirty-three the third, fifteen the 
fourth, and two the fifth." 

In his annual report for the year 1878, he says : — 

'' The number of school districts in the State is 
one thousand three hundred and sixtj^-seven. Three 
hundred and ninety-five schools have established li- 
braries, seventy have made the second application, 
fifty the third, twenty-two the fourth, twelve the 
fifth, ten the sixth, and two the seventh." 

15 



226 GRADUATING SYSTEM FOR COUNTRY SCHOOLS. , 

In his annual report for the year 1879, the superin- 
tendent says : — 

" The number of school districts in the State is 
one thousand three hundred and seventy. Four 
hundred and thirty-seven schools have established 
libraries, eighty-two have made the second applica- 
tion, fift3'-four the third application, twenty-seven the 
fourth application, thirteen the fifth appUcation, 
eleven the sixth application, five the seventh applica- 
tion, and one the eiglith application." 

From the foregoing official statement, it appears 
that nearly one third of the schools of the State of New 
Jersey have already established school libraries, and 
the number of hbraries is annually increasing. This 
co-operative plan^ which helps those ivJio help them- 
selves, is a wise arrangement, and I commend it to 
law-makers in other States. 

But law-makers are rarely ever in advance of the 
people in matters of education. Therefore, if we 
wish our State lea^islatures to enact laws encourao^ins^ 

O CO 

the establishment of school libraries, we must first 
lift the masses high enough to let them see some of 
the advantages of such libraries. This our teachers 
can accomplish by the establishment of libraries all 
over the land, upon the voluntary plan heretofore 
presented. In this way our teachers xnay widen their 
worh, and increase their power and influence with the 
people. 

In the selection of books for a school library, care 
should be taken to embrace a wide range of subjects ; 



A LTBPvAPtY IN EVERY SCHOOL-ROOM. 227 

but books which intelligent and cultured parents 
would be unwilling to place in the hands of their 
sons and daughters should find no place upon its 
shelves. 

The school library should include, at least, some of 
the most popular histories, biographies, books of 
travel, stories, some standard works of fiction, the 
leading poets, books of reference, an unabridged dic- 
tionary, Shakespeare, and the Bible. Many standard 
works are now furnished by leading publishers at low 
prices, and a small amount of money will secure a fair 
library. The local newspapers of the county, and 
at last a couple of the great weeklies from the city, 
should also be included in the readins^ matter fur- 
nished for the school. It is the duty of the teacher 
to assist his pupils in forming a taste for reading. 
He should also, in a degree, direct them in their 
reading in connection with school studies and inde- 
pendent of the school course. In this way the 
teacher may lead his pupils to begin a course of 
reading Avhich shall become a supplement to the 
school work, lastino: throuo^hout life. 

The library should bo kept open during school 
hours, and books of reference should be freely used 
by pupils in the preparation of their lessons. The 
teacher should instruct his pupils how to use books of 
reference, as the master mechanic teaches his appren- 
tices how to use tools. 

I find in "The Western Educational Journal," 
Chicao'o, an editorial on "The Use of Books of Eef- 



228 GRADUATING SYSTEM FOR COUNTRY SCHOOLS. 

crciice," which is so appropriate that I here present 
it: — 

"There is no doubt that too little use is made of 
books of reference in schools of all grades. Many 
teachei-s do not understand how to use to the best ad- 
vantage even the unabridged dictionaries ; failing in 
this knowledge themselves, how can they instruct 
their pupils when and how to use them? One of 
the most important qualifications of a thorough 
and successful teacher is the ability to teach pupils 
how to use other books than their text-books. Mere 
knowdedge of Vv^hat the text-books says upon any 
subject is not suiScient ; the pupil should be taught 
how to supplement this knowledge by the constant 
and proper use of books of reference. Even the pe- 
culiar shade of meaning in a single w^ord, as used in 
one connection rather than another, will often throw 
a flood of light upon the subject-matter in hand, and 
this may be had by a single reference to the dic- 
tionary. 

"The master mechanic does not expect his appren- 
tice to become a thorough workman by verbal in- 
struction alone ; he shows him how to use his tools 
to the best advantage. So w^ith the teacher To 
make good scholars they must be taught how to use 
their books of reference ; and these should bo pro- 
vided in every school-room with liberality. The un- 
abridged dictionary, of course, and with this t!io 
geographical gazetteer, the large atlas and globe, and 
the biographical dictionary; and, in the higher 



A LIBRARY IN EVERY SCHOOL-ROOM. 229 

grades of schools, one of the best eucych)pa3clias ; and 
all of these should be consulted by pupils under the 
teacher's guidance, as often as possible, until their 
use becomes familiar to all In this way will the 
pupils' habits of observation be cultivated, their ideas 
broadened, and a spirit of thoroughness be imparted 
which will be invaluable in later life. The man who 
knovv's how to investigate a subject is the man who 
will become master of it." 

If all the teachers in our public schools would go 
to work, and, in some way, establish a suitable library 
in every school-room, and induce young people to form 
regular habits of reading, they would thereby secure 
to the masses greater prosperity, higher inteUigence, 
and purer morality. It requires no argument to 
prove that in this way the work and inllucnce of 
teachers would become worth, to the public, twice 
as much as at present. It is equally certain that 
an enlightened people would acknowledge this in- 
creased woi-th of their teachers by giving them cor- 
respondingly increased wages. 

A brief editorial in "The American Journal of 
Education," St. Louis, is so clear upon this point 
that I present it for the consideration of teachers : — 

"What the people need to hioio is, that intelli- 
gence begets thrift and enterprise, and coins money 
out of the land, out of the mine, out of water and 
out of air, and every other element ; and that State 
which educates her people the best is the strongest 
State, the richest State, the most prosperous and 



230 GRADUATING SYSTEM FOR COUNTRY SCHOOLS. 

law-abiding State. Our teachers should he so well 
posted that, when information is lacking, they can 
give it to establish the truth of these propositions. 
A little more reading and study on the part of our 
teachers would bring to them power and influence, 
and a rich reward." 



LECTURE XTX. 

NEWSPAPERS m THE SCHOOL-ROOM AND FAMILY. 

Newspapers are public teachers of incalculable 
value. No other public educators visit the family so 
often, no others are so numerous, or so ready to give 
instruction on any subject, at any hour. "\'\'hile the 
pulpit and the platform are using the newspaper to 
widen their influence and to multiply their power, 
our country school-teachers ought to be sufficiently 
progressive to use this tjame element for a like pur- 
pose in the educational work. 

The first step to l)e taken by teachers in utilizing 
the newspaper is to introduce it into every school- 
room, and to see that it finds a place in every family. 
The second step to be taken is to keep the people 
posted, through its columns, as to what the schools 
are doing. 

Speaking of the newspaper in the school-room, 
President Gregory, of the Illinois State University, 
says : " Every editor is a teacher, — a teacher of men 
as well as of children. The newspaper is the fresh- 
est of books. It is the latest history, the newest 
science treatise, the current political economy, the 



232 GRADUATING SYSTEM FOR COUNTRY SCHOOLS. 

manual of the arts, the text-book of a livipg phi- 
losophy. That school-room, other things being 
equal, will be brightest, freshest, and most pro- 
ductive in practical learning into which the news- 
paper penetrates." 

But some one will say. How can the newspaper be 
used in the school-room ? I answer, it may be used 
in various ways. A very interesting and profitable 
reading exercise may be had, once or twice a week, 
by permitting each pupil to read from a newspaper 
an article of his own selection. It is evident that 
such an exercise will create an interest, and carry 
with it a freshness not seen or felt in readins: from 
regular text-books. Pupils who take part in these 
exercises will search the newspapers for interesting 
articles, and will take pleasure in making thorough 
preparation to read them. .In this way they will 
gain information on a variety of subjects, and they 
will learn to read as they talk, when they have some- 
thing of importance to tell. 

These weekly readings may be made still more 
profitable by inviting the patrons of the school to be 
present. The teacher should embrace these occa- 
sions to convince parents that newspapers are impor- 
tant aids in the education of a family. The following 
article, from the " National Journal of Education," 
Boston, may be of service to the teacher in the pres- 
entation of this subject : — 

^'' A school-teacher Avho had been a long time en- 
gaged in hib profession, and had witnessed the inllu- 



NEWSPAPERS IN THE SCHOOL-ROOM. 233 

ence of newspapers on a family of children, writes as 
follows : — 

" ' I have found it to be a universal fact, without 
exception, that those scholars of both sexes, and all 
ages, who have access to newspapers at home, when 
compared with those who have not, are, — 

"'1. Better readers, excellent in pronunciation, 
and consequently read more and understandingly. 

"'2. They are better spellers ; define words with 
ease and accuracy. 

"'3. They obtain practical knowledge of geog- 
raphy in almost half the time required by others, 
as the newspapers have made them acquainted with 
the location of important places of all nations, their 
government and doings, on the globe. 

" ' 4. They are better grammarians ; for, having 
become so familiar with every style in newspapers, 
from the commonplace advertisement to the finished 
and classical oration of the statesman, they more 
readily comprehend the meaning of the text, and 
consequently analyze its construction with accuracy. 

" ' 5. They Avrite better compositions, using better 
language, containing more thoughts, more clearly 
and correctly expressed. 

"'6. Those young men who have for years been 
readers of newspapers are always taking the lead 
in debating societies, exhibit a more extensive 
knowledge upon a greater variety of subjects, and 
express their views with greater fluency, clearness, 
and correctness.'" 



234 GRADUATING SYSTEM FOR COUNTRY SCHOOLS. 

In attempting to introduce papers into the family, 
the teacher may, in a quiet manner, make a list of 
the names of patrons who are subscribers to news- 
papers, and a list of those who take no papers. If 
he will manage this matter skilfully, the former list 
may be lengthened and the latter list may be les- 
sened, until a newspaper shall be found in every 
family. When the list is completed, he should give 
notice of the fact through the local paper, as an incen- 
tive to other teachers to work in a similar manner. 

President Hewitt, of one of the normal schools of 
Illinois, suggests an excellent way of using the 
knowledge gained from the newspaper, and of keep- 
ing the school posted on the news of the day. He 
says: "Ten minutes a day, for two or three days in 
the week, may be very profitably spent in our public 
schools in the way of a general exercise on the news 
of the day. A good plan is to let a committee of 
one or more pupils prepare a report giving a brief 
statement of the affairs that seem to be worthy of 
mention. Then let the teacher and the other pupils 
make criticisms, additions, corrections, and com- 
ments." 

The foregoing method teaches pupils not only to 
compile, but to compose. It is the easiest and most 
natural method of teaching composition. Pupils 
may, in this way, be led to form the habit of writ- 
ing for the public papers, — a habit which is always 
pleasurable and often profitable. I have seen this 
plan thoroughl}^ tested, and I commend it to teachers. 



NEWSPAPERS IN THE SCHOOL- ROOM. 235 

I am clearly convinced that it is the duty of all 
teachers to engage in the work of circulating public 
papers. They are indispensal)le to the highest suc- 
cess in the work of educating the masses, — the 
fathers, the mothers, the children. 

The following forcible suggestions upon this sub- 
ject, from the "American Journal of Education,'' 
St Louis, are earnestly recommended to teachers : — 

" If our teachers are wise — and they certainly are 
growing wiser and stronger and better — they will 
see to it that the printed page, carrying argument, 
persuasion, and facts, which ripen into conviction, is 
circulated continuously among the patrons and tax- 
payers. Trouble and hindrance come from lack of 
knowledge. Intelligent, well-posted people sustain 
the teachers in their work of instruction and dis- 
cipline. Circulate the printed page among the 
people. 

" Are your plans all laid for more reading in con- 
nection with your next school term ? Books were 
never so cheap as now, — good books, too. Circu- 
late good books, magazines, newspapers, and thus 
help the people outside the school-room as well as 
the pupils inside. The newspapers were- never giv- 
ing so much information as at present. By all 
means lay plans for more culture, for more reading 
with the pupils and the people. Intelligence begets 
its like, and intelligent people appreciate what and 
how much our teachers are doing for their children." 

The teacher who circulates public papers may 



236 GRADUATING SYSTEM FOR COUNTRY SCHOOLS. 

easily avoid the charge of "partisan," by obtaining a 
list of leading periodicals from which to allow 
patrons to choose for themselves. The newsdealer 
is not censured for keeping on hand pure publications 
of all parties. It is a good plan to appoint a com- 
mittee of the larger pupils, ladies and gentlemen, 
to solicit subscriptions, as the young jieople will in 
this way become interested in the circulation of 
papers. 

The teacher and pupils may with propriety give 
the preference to the local jjaper, as it is properly 
the organ of the people of the county, and ought, to 
find a place in every family. Where there is more 
than one local paper there is a chance to make 
choice. On this subject I quote the following article 
from the " American Journal of Education " : — 

"First the county newspaper, then the great 
weeklies from the city, and then the religious news- 
paper, bring all the world to you, and take you out 
of yourself into the society of the best and strongest. 
The newspaper, then, not only increases your intel- 
ligence, but your faith in the possibilities of j^ourself 
and the great people among whom you dwell. The 
local county papers are not only very friendly, 
but very helpful to teachers. They are pleased, 
always, to note the progress made by the pupils in 
the schools. They are glad to say good things of 
the good work done by our teachers. The printed 
page of the local newspaper should find its way to 
cyery home and fireside. Certainly no intelligent 



NEWSPAPERS IN THE SCHOOL-ROOM. 261 

father or mother can afford to allow the children to 
grow up without a glimpse of the outside and out-of- 
sight world which the newspaper gives. Use, by all 
means, the local papers, to show the tax-payers what 
is being done in your school." 

Objections are sometimes urged against the circu- 
lation of local papers, — 

1. Because there is sometimes want of culture in 
the style of their composition. 

2. Because they are not always free from impurity 
and indecency. 

The first objection proves that our system of public 
education has done its work imperfectly ; that the 
masses have not been thoroughly trained in compo- 
sition. The remedy is, more thorough culture of 
the masses, that we may be sure to reach those who 
will become journalists. 

The i<econd objection may be removed by the peo- 
ple if they will refuse to tolerate such impurities in 
their papers. The easiest way to reach this evil is 
for the teachers to take it into their hands. Let 
them, in their annual county educational association, 
resolve that they will try to place the local paper in 
every famil}^ in the county, upon condition that its 
columns shall be as free from impurity as the conver- 
sation in a refined family. Then let the editor accept 
this proposition. If, after that, an objectionable 
article should appear in the paper, the attention of 
the editor should be called to the sul)ject, and ho 
should be treated as a friend who is at fault. If it 



238 GRADUATING SYSTEM FOR COUNTRY SCHOOLS. 

should become necessary, these admonitions may be 
repeated from time to time, until the annual associa- 
tion shall again assemble, when a resolution con- 
demning the paper may, with propriety, be passed, 
and the teachers may give their influence to a purer 
paper. It would indeed be a rare case that the 
teachers of a county, heartily supporting the local 
paper, could not have sufficient influence with its 
editor to keep its cohmms clear of imparity. 

So far as the impurity of city papers is con- 
cerned, about all that teachers can do is to circulate 
only those that are pure. 

An editorial in the " Mobile Register " presents 
the proper standard of purity for public papers. It 
says : — 

" There is no reason why a newspaper should not 
be as free from impurity or indecency as the daily 
conversation of a refined Christian family. The 
newspaper should be a publication which a father 
might place in the hands of his daughter, or a 
brother in those of his sister ; in short, which should 
enter any household without the necessity of prelim- 
inary examination. The plea that it nuist be a mir- 
ror of all things going on in the world, — things base, 
vile, and disgusting, as well as things pure and hon- 
orable, — is the shallow sophistry of a prurient incli- 
nation. It will not bear examination, as it would 
not bear being carried out to its full extent, even in 
the eyes of those who urge it. 

"It is no answer to say that newspapers in general 



NEWSPAPERS IN THE SCHOOL-ROOM. 239 

fall far below the standard we have indicated. It is 
too true that they do, but this proves only that their 
actual standard is debased. That it is so is, partly, 
at least, the fjiult of the public that tolerate it." 

We come, in conclusion, to consider how our 
teachers are to keep the people posted on what the 
schools are doing. On this subject I will once more 
quote from the " American Journal of Education" : — 

" Keep up a column in the county papers. Keep 
the people posted. The farmers want to know what 
corn and wheat and potatoes are worth, how much 
is produced. They want to see results all along the 
line. It is right that they should. People want to 
kncrw what progress the children are making in their 
studies, what they get for the money they pay. It 
is right that they should know this. Publish this 
progress in the columns of the county papers, and 
let the people know what the schools are doing. 

" Let the peoi)le know that it costs more to hang a 
man, to board and lodge a man in the prisons, than 
it would to teach him the duties and responsibilities 
of American citizenship, and how to get an honest 
living ; that it costs far more to maintain a system of 
prisons than of education. 

" Let the people know that school facilities add to 
the value of property ; train the pupils to industry, 
to obedience to law, to order, to economy, to thrift, 
and they produce more and save more. 

" Let the people know that education promotes 
industry and lessens idleness, that it awakens and 



240 GRADUATING SYSTEM FOR COUNTRY SCHOOLS. 

intensifies desires, and thus incites and impels man 
to effort to secure the means of gratification ; that it 
touches both ftictors in the great law of wealth, and 
that ignorance dwells in hovels, but intelligence 
chan2:es the rude hut to tlie cottao^e. 

"Let the people know that the universal and undis- 
puted testimouy is that the hand has the highest skill 
when guided by an intelligent mind ; that education 
improves the condition of the laborer ; gives him 
greater thrift and economy ; lessens his tendency to 
vice ; increases his social and political influence, and 
otherwise prepares him to meet the obligations and 
duties of manhood." 

All the foregoing facts will appear by a w^ide com- 
paiison of an ignorant and an unintelligent people. 
But we should also let parents know that the schools 
are producing more than mere wealth and prosperity. 
They are imparting culture. Christian culture, — 
preparing our young people for the enjoyment of a 
higher degree of happiness, purer pleasures than 
can possibly be enjoyed by uncultured people. 

No teacher need doubt the willingness of the news- 
paper to aid the educational work. The teacher can 
find no other fr'end so influential, and so ready to aid 
him in every possible manner. In fact, the public 
press has long been the leader of this great move- 
ment, — the education of the masses. 

Col. Moore, in an oration before the editorial con- 
vention of Missouri, expresses beautifully the senti- 
ment and purposes of the public press. He says : — 



NEWSPAPERS IN THE SCHOOL- EOOM. 241 

" The education and elevation of the masses in 
eveiy department of knowledge will be the special 
purpose of the newspaper. It will ])e a check to the 
j)owerful, and an aid to the lowly. It will be 
stronger than factions and parties, and of necessity 
independent in the broadest sense of the term. It 
will make and destroy the rulers of men, for the 
rulers of men, no more than private individuals, can 
stand against a concentration of adverse popular 
opinion, and its audience will be without number, 
and it will reach them through a thousand diflerent 
avenues of thouo'ht. It will follow the merchant's 
ship in its course around the world, and, understand- 
ing the laws of trade, direct commerce, with its 
potent voice and prophetic vision, into those chan- 
nels which enrich nations and build up cities. It will 
be a friend of art, a friend of science, a friend of 
every occupation, and labor, and calling, the results 
of which have a tendency to beautify and ennoble 
life." 



LECTURE XX. 

teacher's salary, library, and educational 
journals. 

Teachers of country schools sometimes ask why 
their calling is not styled a profession, and why they 
receive for their services so much less than the law- 
yer and doctor. I propose to consider some of the 
causes which have created this difference in position 
and pay, and to suggest the means by which this 
difference may be diminished. 

No one will claim that the work of the teacher is 
less important than the work of the lawyer, or that 
the services of the physician are more essential to 
society than the services of the teacher. If we visit 
the office of a successful attorney, and inquire into 
his secret of gaining honors and making money, he 
will perhaps inform us that, after completing his edu- 
cation, he spent years of study under a learned pre- 
ceptor, before he began the practice of his profession. 
He may further inform us that his law library and 
journals cost as much as an ordinary farm upon 
which a man might maintain a family. From the 
preparation he has made, and the capital he has in- 



TEACHERS SALARY,, LIBRARY, AND JOURNALS. 243 

vested, it is evident that he will expect and receive 
laro^e fees for his services. 

If we visit the office of our family physician and 
examine his medical library and surgical instruments, 
and learn their cost, and if we ascertain how much 
time and money he spent in making preparation for 
the practice of his profession, his charges for attend- 
ing our sick will seem much more reasonable than 
we have, heretofore, believed them to be. 

If we Avould call upon several pastors of churches, 
and learn what preparation each one has made for 
his sacred calling, if we would look into the library 
and examine the periodicals of each, and then ascer- 
tain the amount of salary which each one receives for 
his support, we would find, as a rule, that each one 
is paid about in proportion to his preparation and 
capital. 

If we could call our country teachers together, and 
learn from each the extent of his special preparation 
and the cost of his library and educational journals, 
we would probably find that, among well-informed 
people, the teacher, considering his special prepara- 
tion and capital invested, is as well paid for his 
services as the lawyer ;uid doctor. Then, among 
well-informed patrons and school officers, the princi- 
pal cause of difference in position and pay between 
the country teacher and the professional man arises 
from diiference in preparation made and capital in- 
vested, and the surest way to diminish this difference 
is for t!ie teacher to enlarge his preparation and 
increase his capital. 



244 GRADUATING SYSTEM FOR COUNTRY SCHOOLS. 

The teacher's special preparation does not consist 
of mere knowlecli2:e of text-books, thou2:h this knowl- 
edge is essential, but it inchides the study of the 
laws that govern the growth of body and mind , and 
it should, by all means, embrace general information 
and broad culture. In order to make this prepara- 
tion, the teacher must have books, he must have 
a lii)rary. It need not bo costly. It need not be 
large at first, but it should increase in size from year 
to year. 

When the library of any teacher gets its growth, 
its owner will cease to grow also, and he is then no 
lonofer suited to the work of the school-room. The 

o 

following article from the pen of Hon. Wm. A. Bell 
is so appropriate here, that I present it : — 

"When a tree stops growing, it begins to die. In 
this regard a man resembles a tree. When a per- 
son's mind ceases to grow — when it fails to add new 
thoughts, and thus strengthen itself — it begins to dry 
up and lose power. 

"This principle applies with rare fitness to the 
teacher. A teacher who does not ' ad<l new tvood ' 
every year fiills into ruts, goes backward, dies as a 
teacher. Paradoxical as it may seem, it is neverthe- 
less true that the teacher who stands still goes back- 
wards. It is simply an impossibility that a teacher 
shall retain, through a number of years, the vigor 
and freshness of his early teaching unless he study ; 
and this study must not consist in the simple routine 
of [)reparing daily recitations, — daily preparations, of 



TEACHEirS SALARY, LIBRARY, AND JOURNALS. 245 

course, — the reading of professional literature of 
course, — but something more. 

" The mind must be led out of the narrow routine 
of school-room duties, and allowed to take in some- 
thinix of what is called ^ oriw-ieral culture.' The teacher 
who does not spend some time in study outside J:he 
line of his daily duties, of necessity grows narrow. 
One hour of each twenty- four wisely used for mental 
growth and culture is salt enough to save from stag- 
nation. The manner in which this one hoiu' (more 
or less) is used will determine very largely whether 
or not a teacher will rise in his profession, or con- 
tinue to *job round' year after year, and then sink 
beneath the wave of advancing requirements." 

Many of our teachers are men and women of read- 
ing and culture, but there are others who possess al- 
most no general information. Too many of them, 
without any special preparation, enter the school- 
room armed ^dth no weapons but text-books. 

In some sections of the country the special train- 
ing and general information of teachers arc not 
noted by those who employ them and fix their sala- 
ries. In all such cases it is evident that the people 
have not been clearly shown the superior work of 
well-trained and well-informed teachers. It is equally 
evident that it will pay progressive teachers to widen 
their work, and help the people outside the school to 
gain correct notions upon this subject. This they 
can accomplish : — 

1 By the superior quality and breadth of their 
work, inside and outside of the school-room. 



24 G GRADUATING SYSTEM FOR COUNTRY SCHOOLS. 

2. By circulating educational journals among the 
people, and especially among school officers who 
employ teachers and fix their salaries. 

Let each teacher see to it that every member of 
his school hoard reads regularly a good educational 
journal. 

We have no statistics giving the number of libra- 
ries possessed by teachers of country schools, nor the 
exact number of country teachers who are subscribers 
to educational journals ; but the meagre support 
given to these periodicals proves that a very large 
proportion of our teachers take no journals. An edi- 
torial in the " Educational Weekly," Chicago, says : 

" One would think that, of all classes in the com- 
munity, teachers would be the first to sustain their 
papers. Yet we venture to assert that there is no 
other learned profession that to-day is doing so little 
for the maintenance of its periodical literature. 
This may be in part due to the fact that the teacher's 
profession demands such a wide scope of reading, and 
such a many-sided culture, that there is little time 
and monej^ left for journals that are devoted more 
especially to the interests of our schools. The same 
may be said, however, of all the other professions, in 
a degree. They all demand extensive reading and 
varied information, and all who excel in them must 
find time for this. Making all due allowance for the 
requirements of modern learning, we still feel that 
teachers, as a class, are behind the age in attention 
to the details of their profession, and in the use of 



teacher's salary, library, and journals. 247 

means provided by the press for promoting their 
success." 

An editorial in the " Practical Teacher " suggests 
that principals 'and superintendents are largely re- 
sponsible for the fact that so many teachers fail to 
read books and to take journals. It says: "Many 
of our teachers don't read books treating upon their 
work. They don't take educational periodicals. 
They don t attend teachers' institutes The}^ don't 
do a great many other things that they ought to do. 
True, true, every word of it. But we believe in 
giving to all their dues, and there is another party 
to this case who should be included in this indict- 
ment, viz., principals and superintendents. A great 
many of these don't read books treating upon their 
work ; nor take educational journals ; nor attend 
teachers' institutes ; nor do a great many other things 
they ought to do. And another thing they don't do : 
although they occupy positions as leaders and guides 
to their teachers, the}^ not only take no educational 
journal themselves, but they are too indifferent to 
bring the subject before their teachers. And we 
may say farther, that when journals, the best in the 
country, are sent to them, Avith the request that tiiey 
distribute them among their teachers, they are too 
dead and lifeless, or too important, to do even that. 
Such leaders are a hindrance and a dishonor to their 
grand work. But for them the cause of education 
would, to-day, be far in advance of what it is." 

An editorial in " Barnes's Educational Monthly," 



248 GRADUATING SYSTEM FOR COUNTRY SCHOOLS. 

New York, asserts that one reason why so many 
teachers, take no educational journals, is to be found 
in the fact that in some normal schools, where teach- 
ers are trained, but little interest is taken in the sub- 
ject of journals. In proof of this assertion it cites 
the following fact : — 

" In a State normal school receiving and expending 
over eighteen thousand dollars a year, with a faculty 
of sixteen teachers, only two of these teachers take 
and pay for any kind of an educational journal. 
Onl?/ two! Among the pupils, three hundred young 
men and women, — our future teachers, — not one 
takes any kind of an educational journal." 

I know from personal experience that superintend- 
ents sometimes neglect to enforce earnestly upon the 
minds of their teachers the need of educational jour- 
nals. I know also that when the subject is properly 
presented, teachers are ready to respond. I will 
give a case as an illustration. 

When I entered upon the work of superintending 
schools of Monongalia County, West Virginia, in 
1874, I found very few teachers in the county sub- 
scribers to educational journals. I took occasion in 
our institutes, from time to time, to call the attention 
of teachers to this subject, but I found little, if any, 
increase in the number of journals taken by teachers. 
In the autumn of 1878 I concluded that, in visiting 
the schools the following wdnter, I would present 
the subject, privately, to each teacher, in his own 
school-room. I carried with me specimen copies of 



teacher's salary, library, and journals. 249 

several journals, and with little labor, and no loss of 
time, I was able, at the end of the school term, to 
report eighty-one out of ninety teachers employed 
in the county, subscribers to one or more educa^ 
tional journals. 

I feel quite certain that our normal schools would 
rest on a firmer foundation, that they would furnish 
better teachers, and do better w^ork, if they would 
require all pupils, before graduation, to become thor- 
oughly acquainted with the spirit and Avork of our 
school system, by reading regularly some of the best 
educational journals. I am sure that our county 
superintendents and commissioners would greatly 
increase their efficiency, that they would popularize 
school supervision, if they would, by personal ef- 
forts, place an educational journal in the hands of 
every teacher. I am confident that our country 
teachers would widen their usefulness, and increase 
their salaries, if they would place an educational jour- 
nal in the hands of every local school officer, and, as 
far as practicable, in every family. In this way the 
people would become equally interested, in feeling as 
well as in fact, with the teacher, and they would be- 
come " fellow-laborers " in the educational work. 

The infiuence and usefulness of periodical litera- 
ture are but beginning to be understood and appreci- 
ated by superintendents, principals, and teachers, and 
it is not strange that, in time past, many of them 
have neglected to read and circulate educational jour- 
nals. The reason why these journals were never be- 



250 GRADUATING SYSTEM FOR COUNTRY SCHOOLS. 

fore so highly appreciated is, they were never so good 
as at present. Some of them are devoted to special 
departments in education, while others occupy a very 
wide field, extending from the kindergarten to the 
university. 

There is, however, one department in education to 
which no journal, either in this country or in England, 
has been, heretofore, entirely devoted. This depart- 
ment may be styled higher education, though it does 
not pertain to high schools alone. It is the science 
and philosophy of education, — a subject that should 
be carefully studied by all educators, from the county 
superintendent to the university president. This 
field is now occupied by an international magazine, 
entitled "Education," condu<ted by Mr. T. W. Bick- 
nell- of Boston. In order to give a fairer view of 
the field which this magazine proposes to occupy, I 
present the following extract from its first pros- 
pectus : — 

"It is the most encouraging sign of the times, edu- 
cationally, that the science and the art of teaching 
are coming to be recognized as the foundation cf a 
profession of pedagogics. Hitherto but little atten- 
tion has been paid to the fact that profound study 
and investigation were required to develop the laws 
of good teaching and the philosophy of sound in- 
struction. If we mistake not, the current of tiiought 
noAV seeks to discover the essential spirit of true 
methods, and the soul of dry formulas. Every 
method, new or old, is put to the seaiching test of 



teacher's salary, library, and journals. 251 

psycholog}^ and the normal laws of mental growth. 
Failinsf to meet the demands of this hisfh tribunal of 
reason and intelligence, it fails utterly. Our maga- 
zine proposes to discuss questions of education on 
the sides of philosophy and humanity. We hope to 
secure in our discussions writers of breadth as Avell as 
depth, of general as well as special attainments. 
We hope to bring the studies of our best thinkers 
and writers within the reach of the middle and higher 
classes of our profession, and to oiFer to those ambi- 
tious to ascend the means of promotion by the intel- 
lectual uplift of superior experienced minds. We 
hope to show that there is a true harmony in all de- 
partments of study, from the lowest grade to the 
highest, and that the success of each grade is an ele- 
ment in the advancement of every other section. 
We shall endeavor to recognize in the departments 
their functions in the related educational organism, 
the harmony of whose adjustment is the proper and 
universal study of the true educator. Above all, it 
will be our purpose to show that a better understand- 
ing of the human mind, the laws which govern its 
growth, and the results to be attained thereby, are 
but the nearer approach of the human to the divine, 
and an adaptation of the highest faith to the soul's 
spiritual needs ; in other w^ords, that education and 
religion are one whole, and not the complement of 
each other." 

The great variety of educational periodicals in this 
country, and the wide range of subjects discussed in 



252 GRADUATING SYSTEM FOR COUNTRY SCHOOLS. 

their columns, warrant the conclusion that every 
educator can find a journal suited to his work. The 
teacher who, in this age of reading, narrows his nat- 
ural powers by confining himself to text-books, is 
not fit for the work, and ought to find some other 
employment. 

Some teachers claim that they are so poorly paid 
that they cannot afford to buy books or to take 
papers. These teachers say, "Let the people pay us 
better, and then we will qualify ourselves to do bet- 
ter work." But this demand is contrary to the laws 
of trade. Skill, in any business, brings a good price 
in all the markets of the world, but no one has a 
right to demand the price which skill brings until he 
possesses the skill. The teacher's preparation, 
library, and journals constitute his stock in trade, 
and no one can reasonably expect large profits from 
small investments. The following editorial from the 
" New York School Journal " is so appropriate to 
this subject, that I present it : — 

" 1. Remember that in teaching, as well as in any 
other business, you must have a good deal of capital 
invested to obtain large proceeds. 

"2. Remember that your caj)ital is your health, 
your education, your library, your determination to 
brighten and improve yourself, and your power to 
teach others. 

" 3. Remember that every good business man seeks 
to enlarge his business each year, by constantly in- 
vesting more capital. 



teacher's salary, library, and journals. 253 

" 4. Remember that good business men watch the 
market ; they mark what others are doing, note how 
they do it, and take papers and journals that give 
specific information. You will be very short-sighted 
If you do not imitate their example. 

" 5. Remember that business men often meet and 
consult. They have exchanges, boards of trade, hold 
fairs, etc. Teachers who do not pursue a similar line 
of conduct have themselves to blame when they fail. 

"6. Remember that your work is a business, in 
many respects, and must be conducted on business 
principles ; that it does not consist in keeping your 
pupils still, and getting replies to questions many 
of which 3^ou could not answer yourself. 

"7. Remember that your work, if done right, Avill 
make j^ou a competent man or woman ; it will, like 
any business, give you a better judgment, more in- 
formation, and a wider rano-e of thouo-ht. 

"8. Remember that 3^ou ought to be more deeply in- 
terested in it every day, as every business man is in 
his business." 

The time is coming — it is near at hand — when 
people will ask no clearer proof of the incompetency 
of any teacher than the fact that he has no library, 
and that he takes no journals. These are no less 
essential to the teacher in the school than to the 
attorney at the bar, to the physician in the sick room, 
or to the minister in the pulpit. 



LECTURE XXI. 
teachers' training-schools and institutes. 

The demand for experienced and well-trained 
teachers was never so great as at present. In some 
of the larger tow^ns, and in several cities, no inexpe- 
rienced person is employed as a teacher, unless he 
has taken a thorough course in some good training- 
school. This forward step in the educational work 
of the city is already indorsed by many of the most 
intelligent people of the country districts, and it is 
evident that this must eventually become the rule in 
the selection of teachers of every grade. 

Thorough training is not more essential to the suc- 
cess of the lawyer than to the success of the teacher. 
No one having a case in court would employ as his 
counsel a man who has had neither training nor prac- 
tice in the profession of law. The parent cannot 
afford to commit the education of his children into 
the hands of an untrained teacher, any more than he 
can afford to commit a suit in court into the hands of 
an untrained lawyer. I am aware that many who 
have been trained for the work of teaching are not 
first-class teachers. It is equally true that many 
who have been trained for the bar are not first-class 



TEACHEES' TRAINING-SCHOOLS AND INSTITUTES. 255 

lawyers. Yet I venture to assert that all trained 
teachers and trained lawyers are doing far better 
work than they would have done without this train- 
ing. 

It may be asserted, with some degree of truth, 
that our normal schools have graduated and sent out 
too many incompetent teachers. This charge was, 
perhaps, truer in the past than it is at the present. 
State Superintendent J. P. Wickersham, of Penn- 
sylvania, lays dov/n the law by which this evil may 
be avoided. He says : — 

"Normal schools rest their claims to the support 
of the State and the people upon the assumption 
that they are preparing a more skilful class of prac- 
tical teachers. Whether or not they do this de- 
pends mainly upon the use they make of their model 
schools. No one should be graduated who is not an 
expert in the school-room. Whatever the character 
or scholarship, a want of skill in imparting instruc- 
tion or in handling a class should be fatal to gradua- 
tion." 

Our best educators, almost without exception, 
maintain that money expended for the support of 
normal schools is a paying investment. I present, 
as an example, the opinion of Dr. Barnas Sears, 
agent of the Peabody Educational Fund. He 
says : — 

"The leading countries of Europe have experi- 
mented on this subject, and are unanimous in their 
opinions of the expediency of normal training and 



256 GRADUATING SYSTEM FOR COUNTRY SCHOOLS. 

of superintendence. The same is true, for a shorter 
period, of every State of the Union. I venture the 
assertion that, in the opinion of competent judges, 
no school-money in Europe or America has been 
rfiore advantageously expended than that paid for 
normal schools." 

Normal schools are growing in favor with the 
American people. As evidence of this, I may refer 
to the fact that their number is increasing from year 
to year. The following table from the last report 
of the Commissioner of Education shows the annual 
increase in the number of normal schools, instruc- 
tors, and students, for seven successive years : — 



TABIE OF NORMAL SCHOOLS. 





1870. 


1871. 


1872. 


1873. 


1874. 


1875. 


1876. 


1877. 


No. of institutions, 


53 


63 


98 


113 


124 


137 


151 


152 


No. of instructors, 


178 


445 


773 


887 


966 


1,031 


1,065 


1,189 


No. of students . . 


10,028 


10,922 


11,778 


16,620 


24,405 


29,105 


33,921 


37,082 



Most of our normal schools are academic in their 
character. They impart instruction in the branches, 
and also train persons in the art of teaching. This 
has been the occasion of complaint on the part of 
some, who maintain that normal schools should be 
restricted to the professional course, and should give 
no instruction in any branches of study. The fol- 
lowing article from the pen of Professor Edward 
Brooks, principal of the State Normal School at 



teachers' training-schools and institutes. 257 

Millersville, Penn., shows why normal schools 
should teach the branches : — 

" The teacher must possess knowledge in order to 
impart it to others ; he cannot teach what he does 
not know. He also needs to have his own powers 
cultivated for the power it gives him to think, to 
originate and modify methods, and to influence and 
control his pupils. In other words, the ideal teacher 
should be a person with well-cultured powers and a 
liberal education. It is thus apparent that thorough 
scholastic training lies at the foundation of a teach- 
er's education. The normal school must, therefore, 
require of its pupils a thorough training in the 
branches of a scholastic course of study. 

" This qualification seems to be equivalent to that 
afforded by the academy or college, and it has been 
a question widely discussed whether it should not be 
obtained at these institutions. It Avas formerly held 
that the normal school should not attempt to give 
this scholastic training, but should restrict itself to 
the work of the professional course ; that any attempt 
to impart instruction in the branches of knowledge 
was a departure from the legitimate function of a 
normal school, and an infringement upon the domain 
of these other institutions. This ^opinion was held, 
not merely by those who were not in sympathy with 
normal school w^ork, but also by some of the leading 
normal-school men in the country. It has been 
found, howeve;*, in the practical working of these 
schools, that the 3^oung people who presented them- 



258 GRADUATING SYSTEM FOR COUNTRY SCHOOLS. 

selves for professional instruction were not properly 
prepared in the branches ; and the normal schools 
were thus compelled to introduce a scholastic depart- 
ment, whether they desired to do so or not. 

" Whatever, therefore, be the true theory of normal- 
school instruction, experience has proved the present 
necessity of such a scholastic course ; and the normal 
schools of the country to-day, almost if not entirely 
without exception, have provided for the scholastic 
training of -their pupils. Such a course, however, 
in my opinion, is not only a present practical neces- 
sity, but an essential part of the true theory of 
normal-school education." 

Much as our normal schools have done, and are 
still doing, statistics show that they are training but 
a small per cent of the teachers of the whole coun- 
try. The cause of this will be clearly seen if we 
consider the fact that a large per cent of the students 
in academies and colleges pay part of their yearly 
expenses by teaching in the country during the win- 
ter, and the greater number of those who do not 
teach while taking their college course, turn their 
attention to teaching after graduation. In order 
that these may be properly trained, it is necessary 
that instructions in the art and science of teachiiig 
shall be given in all schools of high order. 

Some of our foremost colleges have already estab- 
lished chairs of didactics for the thorough training 
of teachers, and others are moving in this direction. 
President Magoun, of Iowa College, urges the fol- 
lowing reasons for this movement : — 



teachers' training-schools and institutes. 259 

" Firsts A large proportion of the graduates take 
up teaching, either from necessity, for a time, after 
graduating, or from choice, making it their profession 
for life ; and this latter class it is, for every reason, 
desirable to increase. 

" Second^ The colleges, by their trained and expe- 
rienced teachers, and by their laboratories and 
museums, are best fitted to meet at once the demand 
for teachers who are thoroughly educated and up to 
the times in all branches." 

The " Educational Weekly," Chicago, contains an 
article from the pen of Prof. S. N. Fellows, of Iowa 
University, in which he briefly recapitulates as fol- 
lows the reasons for establishing chairs of didactics 
in colleges and universities. He says : — 

"1. It will greatly assist the graduates, who, from 
their superior culture, will occup}^ chief places and 
become teachers of teachers. 

"2. A reflex benefit will accrue to the coUesres 
themselves, in the greater success of their graduates 
and in improved metlaods of their own work. 

"3. Professional educational literature will be 
improved. 

" 4. The development of a true science of educa- 
tion will be promoted. 

"5. It will be a deserved recoo^nition bv the hiah- 
est educational authorities of the value and need of 
professional training for teachers of every grade. 

" 6. Teaching will more justly merit the title of 
a profession. 



20)0 GRADUATING SYSTEM FOR COUNTRY SCHOOLS. 

" 7. Higher institutions will become more closely 
united with our public-school system. 

"8. It will .increase and widen the knowledge of 
the ends and means of education among those who, 
thouo:h not teachers, will hold hi^^h official and social 
positions." 

Our educational journals with great unanimity 
favor professorships of didactics in universities and 
colleges. Mr. T. W. Bicknell, editor of the New 
England "Journal of Education,*' in a late editorial, 
says : — 

" The most pressing want of our day and country 
is a class of professionally educated teachers. It is 
not a new want. Horace Mann felt it fifty years 
ago, and attempted to satisfy it by the estabhsh- 
ment of the first normal school in Massachusetts in 
1839. All true leaders in education have seen the 
wisdom of that initiative movement for the suppljnng 
of schools with fit and fitly educated teachers, and 
have labored for the establishment of normal schools, 
normal institutes, anything and everything that would 
have any possible influence in lifting teaching out of 
the low forms of mechanical work to the higher plane 
of philosophic (because natural) methods of instruc- 
tion. 

" Normal schools have done much, directly and in- 
directly, in forty years, to make teaching a profession, 
and to make men and women having the power and 
scope of educators. But even in the States where 
normal schools have had the longest life and strongest 



261 



influence, not over thirty per cent of the teachers 
have ever seen a normal school, or enjoyed its in- 
struction ; in others, the percentage varies from this 
maximum to two, three, four, and five per cent. It 
has become evident that something more must be 
done in this direction of raising up a class of edu- 
cated teachers, and the colleges are now attempting 
to supplement the work by the establishment of 
chairs of pedagogics, of didactics, of theory and 
practice of teaching, etc. 

"How far this move partakes of the nature of a 
bid to fill vacant school-rooms, boarding-houses, etc., 
in college-surfeited communities, is not the question 
with us now. Whatever the end may be, if the 
means is adequate for the production of teachers, we 
are satisfied. This addition of teachers' courses to 
the regular college course may mean much or little ; 
much, if it attempts to make a real professional class 
by a course of study which shall not be an optional, 
but an additional college grade of study ; much, if 
it places in these chairs men and women of the best 
accomplished talent and experience in the theory, 
the philosophy, and the practice of teaching. The 
Western colleges are especially alive in the introduc- 
tion of pedagogics in the regidar college curriculum. 
Its double influence ought and will be to improve the 
teaching of the colleges themselves, where, if any- 
where, normal instruction and methods should have 
a home, and to prepare a class of young men and 
women with more thorouo^h finishinir for the work of 



262 GRADUATING SYSTEjNI FOR COUNTRY SCHOOLS. 

teaching, upon which so many of our newly graduated 
students are entering." 

The following article is from the " Educational 
News Gleaner," Chicago : — 

"It will doubtless be uro^ed that colleo:e crraduates, 
by vh'tue of their higher education, require no pro- 
fessional training as a prerequisite for teaching. It 
is true that a college course may fit a graduate for 
some kinds of special teaching, but it certainly fails 
to prepare one to become a good general teacher of 
a common school or a his^h school. If a colleo-e 
diploma should entitle the holder to a teacher's cer- 
tificate, then why not to a medical diploma, or to 
admission to the bar? 

" It certainly is desirable that colleges and univer- 
sities, especially those established and maintained by 
the State, should establish professorships of science 
and art of education, and provide post-graduate 
courses for those who intend to become teachers. 
'Professors of the Theory, History, and Practice of 
Education ' have been appointed in the Universities 
of Edinburgh and St. Andrews, Scotland, and such 
a chair is soon to be established in the University of 
Cambridge, England. 1 his measure has been urged 
in our oavu country by prominent educators, such as 
Professor Fellows, of the Iowa University, Principal 
Dunton, of the Boston Normal School, Rev. A. D. 
Mayo, associate editor of the ' National Journal of 
Education,' Boston, and many others. The Univer- 
sity of Michigan has taken the lead in establishing 



TEACHEKS 

such a chair, and Professor Payne ably fills it. The 
universities and colleges, combined with State and 
city normal schools, and normal classes organized in 
connection with high schools, could in ten years 
supply the nation with a corps of trained teachers 
for every grade of school, — from the country school 
to the hiofh school." 

o 

Gen. John Eaton, Commissioner of the Bureau of 
Education at Washington, in his last annual report, 
presents his views upon this subject, and shows that 
no less than twenty German universities take an 
interest in the training of teachers. Here is Avhat 
he says : — 

" The science and art of teaching is surely a sub- 
ject so important that it may well be included in the 
curricula of our universities and colleoes. The State 
University of Iowa established a chair of didactics 
in 1873, made it an elective subject for the senior 
year, and gives the degree of bachelor of didactics 
to such of its graduates as have taught two years 
after receiving this instruction. The example seems 
worthy of imitation. 

" The attempt to establish chairs of didactics has 
been embarrassed by the historic customs of our 
older colleges. They largel}^ retain the ideas and 
methods which were brought by the colonists from 
the mother country, and contemplate the education 
of a comparatively small number of persons, and 
this after their minds are measurably mature. Their 
methods are poorly adapted to instruct innnature 



264 GRADUATING SYSTEM FOR COUNTRY SCHOOLS. 

minds, have been totally abandoned in all intelligent 
elementary training, and have been modified in sec- 
ondary instruction. 

" Naturally the learned men at the head of our col- 
leges were considered the leaders in our educational 
affairs. Often they stood aloof from the elementary 
school, and usually made no effort to modify their 
own methods for its use. Teaching many other sci- 
ences, they omitted the philosophy of education from 
their curriculum, sometimes, indeed, acting as though 
there were no such subject in the domain of thought. 
It has been the same spirit, but not carried to the 
same extent, which has contended against the teach- 
ing of the natural sciences. 

" It is this lack of a really comprehensive philosophy 
of culture, which should include man in all his con- 
ditions and relations, that has permitted, if not pro- 
moted, foolish prejudices between institutions of 
learnino' founded on a relio^ious and a civic basis 
respectively, and between those founded by the sev- 
eral religious denominations. 

" A partial cure for this condition has been found 
in the various college associations which have been 
founded from time to time. These cannot be con- 
ducted with any marked interest and vigor without 
making our colleges better acquainted and more sym- 
pathetic with each other, and causing them to assume 
a better relation to all other phases of instruction. 

" It is not too much to hope that another result 
will be a more careful consideration of the philos- 



TEACHERS* TRAINING-SCHOOLS AND INSTITUTES. 265 

ophy of education, and adequate provision for the 
sound and thorough teaching of it. Many institu- 
tions, whose students defray a large part of their 
expenses before graduation by teaching, do not give 
an hour's instruction in this subject, nor make any 
effort to secure pedagogical works for their libraries. 
"In striking contrast with this apatli^^ is the treat- 
ment of the philosophy of education by the German 
universities. In the following German imiversities 
pedagogy is taught by means of lectures for the time 

stated : — 

« 

Hours a Hours a 

week. week. 

Berlin 6 Jena 6 

Bonn 4 Kiel 3 

Breslau 3 Leipzig 8 

Erlangen 2 Miinster 4 

Freiburg 2 Tiibingen 3 

Giessen 2 Wiirzburg 4 

Gottiugen 2 Vienna- 6 

Greifswald 3 Berne 2* 

Halle 5 Basel 2 

Heidelberg 3 Ziirich 2 

" At Jena the subjects of the lectures are : History 
of education, scientific principles of educating the 
child, school discipline, methods of instruction, 
school hygiene, school legislation, school architec- 
ture, ancient and modern languages, comparative 
philology, logic, metaphysics 

"There are in Germany, besides the ordinary sem- 
inaries for the training of elementary teachers, sev- 
eral advanced pedagogic seminaries, whose object is 
to give the students an opportunity to acquire a 



266 GRADUATING SYSTEM FOR COUNTR^ SCHOOLS. 

more profound scientific knowledge in their special- 
ties before they enter upon their professional duties. 
These purely scientific institutions are attended only 
by students and graduates of universities, who aspire 
to the higher positions in the secondary and superior 
schools. In some of these seminaries great stress is 
laid on philology, in others on the philosophy of 
education." 

We may feel assured, from the tests ah^eady made, 
both in Europe and in this country, that in establish- 
ing chairs of didactics in colleges and universities, we 
are trying no uncertain experiment. 

Next to the normal school, and near akin to it, is 
the teachers' institute, held annually, and in some 
places oftener, in almost every school district, county, 
and State. The teachers' institute is not intended to 
dispense with, but rather to supplement the work of 
the trainino -school. It aims to brins: tos^ether edu- 
cational workers of every grade, from the teacher of 
the primary school to the president of the univer- 
sity, so as to give teachers of the lowest grade the 
benefit of the highefc^t instructions. 

The value of the teachers' institute is found, not 
alone in the fact that it imparts instructions in the 
branches and in the art of teaching, but that it 
aJffords opportunities for teachers to become better 
acquainted ; that it brings them into fuller sympathy 
with each other ; and that it has a tendency to har- 
monize the educational work from the common 
school to the university. I can point to no higher 



teachers' training-schools and institutes. 267 

example of this than the six weeks' State Institute 
held lately in the Virginia University buildings, at 
Charlottesville. I offer, in conclusion, an account of 
this institute from the pen of Rev. A. D. Mayo, of 
Boston, associate editor of the "National Journal 
of Education," who was one of the lecturers at the 
institute. Writing from Charlottesville, he says : — 
"The State University offered its entire facilities, 
in class-rooms, libraries, collections, and boarding- 
houses, for the whole session, while its leading pro- 
fessors have heartily joined its list of lecturers ; and 
their families, in the spirit of true Virginia hospital- 
ity, have opened their own houses, and in every w^ay 
labored to make the crowd of teachers feel them- 
selves at home. Probably no school institute in the 
country ever assembled under circumstances more 
attractive. No group of university buildings in 
America enjoys an outlook so ])eautiful, or, on the 
whole, is so generally pervaded with the true aca- 
demic atmosphere as the University of Virginia. Its 
spacious park of nearly five hundred acres, in good 
cultivation, is crowned by the library, from whose 
dome the eye sweeps over one of the most enchanting 
views in this region of enchantment, the Piedmont 
slopes of the Blue Ridge. Here are now assembled 
four hundred and fifty teachers, two thirds of them 
women, the large majority teachers of common 
schools in the country, and the smaller towns of the 
State, although there is a fine representation of the 
superior teachers from the best academies ; and many 



268 GRADUATING SYSTEM FOR COUNTRY SCHOOLS. 

family instructors, and even professors in colleges, 
have come up to the feast. The number was limited 
to five hundred, the seating capacity of the univer- 
sity hall, although a little effort would have brought 
a thousand. This institute includes only the white 
teachers, another of three hundred colored teachers 
being in session for the same period at Lynchburg. 

"One of the most interesting features of this 
assemblage is its representative character. Almost 
every county, and, from the immediate vicinity, 
every school district, is represented. It is the first 
time in the history of the State when any number of 
common-school teachers so large and influential have 
looked in each other's faces, and been brought in 
friendly contact with teachers in academical schools 
and the faculty of a leading university. It is impos- 
sible to estimate the effects of a six weeks' inter- 
course upon this body of teachers. The curse of 
Southern life is its isolation ; and the teacher in the 
little country school, or the graded school of the vil- 
lage, worried by the thousand obstacles that still 
beset the common school in this portion of the coun- 
try, finds herself here in a company which probably 
represents, in large measure, the educational intelli- 
gence and real worth of the Commonwealth. It 
would probably be difficult to get together five hun- 
dred people who, all the way from the university 
president and the governor out to the district school- 
mistress, cover a greater variety of interests, and 
more truly the most hopeful life of the new domin- 



ion. In the reception given by the ladies of the 
university to the institute, on Friday evening, July 
30, a strano'cr could overlook as brilliant a throns: of 
young people as one is likely to see. There were in 
the crowd teachers connected with the families of 
Washington, Jefferson, the Randolphs, Patrick Henry, 
Governor Nelson, Ex-President Tyler, Jeff. Davis ; 
indeed, a large number of the historical characters of 
the State there appeared by proxy. 

" The instruction in the institute has been admi- 
rably arranged by Superintendent Newell, of Mary- 
land, himself one of the best representatives of the 
new education in all its ins and outs, and an organ- 
izer of school work of rare ability. Dr. Ruffner, 
State Superintendent of Virainia, is also in attend- 
ance, and is one of the lecturers. Rev. Wm. B. Mc- 
Gilvray, one of the Richmond masters, and Professor 
A. L. Funk, until recently an eminent teacher in the 
State, are daily lecturers on methods. The univer- 
sity professors are giving valuable lectures on science, 
literature, and teaching, and are always at hand to 
walk the cabinets, libraries, and laboratory with all 
who desire their aid. A course of five lectures has 
also been delivered by A. D. Mayo, associate ed- 
itor of the 'National Journal of Education.' The 
institute opens at 8.30 a. m., and is instructed by 
lectures till 12. Constant attendance is insisted on, 
and full notes taken. At 12 the main body breaks 
into nine sections, which, for an hour, are instructed 
by teachers selected for their special fitness, and ex- 



270 GRADUATING SYSTEM FOR COUNTRY SCHOOLS. 

amined upon the lectures previously delivered. The 
afternoon is given to rest, Avith the exception of a 
general lecture at the closing hour. There is also 
a good deal of private, special work going on at odd 
hours. Indeed we have never seen together a body 
of young people more thoroughly in earnest, more 
determined to get at and utilize the principles and 
methods of the best school-keeping. To large num- 
bers of them it has come with all the force of a 
* revival of religion,' a wakening up to the glory and 
beauty of the new gospel to the children, like the 
first view from the summit of one of their mountains 
over the wonderland that lies outspread beneath. 
It is an education in itself to sit upon the platform 
and watch the faces of these teachers, as some new 
point is made, or some home appeal wakes up a great 
deep of thought and feeling before unknown. These 
eventful weeks will become an epoch in the life of 
many an earnest young man or woman, no less than 
a historical point of departure in the educational life 
of the State. 

"The State University of Virginia has cast the 
whole weight of its great influence upon the side of 
the rising common school. In this it only follows 
in the steps of its founder, Thomas Jefferson, who 
first outlined the plan of the complete system of free 
education extending from the district school to the 
university." 

I cannot conclude this subject without referring to 
the fact that we have a '* National Educational Asso- 



teachers' training-schools and institutes. 271 

elation," embracing teachers of every grade ; a "Na- 
tional Council of Education," composed of fifty-one 
of the foremost thinkers connected with the educa- 
tional work ; and an " International Society for Inves- 
tigating and Promoting the Science of Teaching," 
which last-named society already includes many of 
the most progressive and scholarly educators in this 
country and in Canada. 

Taking into consideration the number of institutes 
held in districts, counties, and States, and the annual 
national gatherings of teachers, it is certainly safe 
to say that no other distixict class of men and women 
meets so often for mutual improvement. 



LECTURE XXII. 

teachers' examinations and COimSE OF STUDY. 

The annual re-examination of country teachers in 
the naked primary branches and in nothing else is 
about as unprogressive a plan as could possibly 1)e 
devised. It is as discouraging, unwise, and unpro- 
gressive as the old custom which required all pupils, 
at the opening of the school term, to commence each 
branch of study at the beginning of the book. 

The annual re-examination in the bare branches 
and in nothing else has made the impression upon 
the minds of many teachers that they need no knowl- 
edge outside of text-books. This system gives the 
well-informed and highly cultivated teacher no better 
certificate or salary than it gives the teacher whose 
knowledge is bounded by the narrow limits of text- 
books. Almost any sprightly youth who has just 
completed the common branches may, in many of 
these examinations, measure arms with teachers of 
information and experience. These facts, which no 
intelligent person will deny, prove that educ^itors 
ought to invent a wiser plan for the examination of 
teachers. 

Dr. John Hancock, superintendent of the city 



TEACHEES' EXAMINATIONS. 273 

schools of Dayton, Ohio, and ex-president of the 
National Educational Association, in an article pub- 
lished in the " Public School Journal," Cincinnati, 
urges a radical change in the present mode of con- 
ducting teachers' examinations. His article is so 
appropriate here, that I present it in full. He 
says : — 

" No department connected with the organization 
of our public-school system could contribute so 
much to the efficiency of that system as the boards 
of county examiners, were they armed by statute 
with all the powers necessary to a proj)er discharge 
of their important duties. That county boards or 
city boards are, in general, doing the kind of work 
most conducive to educational progress, few thought- 
ful educators will assume. 

" In the first place, what is the work they are 
doing' It may be answered: They are everywhere 
— with honorable exceptions, of course — simply 
asking questions in arithmetic, geography, and gram- 
mar, and hearing candidates read from a text-book. 
Of the character of these questions nothing further 
need be said, than that too frequently, instead of 
being comprehensive and root-striking, they are 
narrow, technical, pedantic, puzzling, and worth- 
less. Having examined the pajDers of candidates, 
and assigned a percentage value to each answer, and 
footed up the results, the examiners deem their 
duties ended. It would ill become any one to 
'undervalue any proper means taken to determine, 

18 



274 GRADUATING SYSTEM FOR COUNTRY SCHOOLS. 

beyond a peradventure, whether or not a candidate 
has a sufficient knowledge of the branches he shall 
be required to teach. The possession of such a 
knowledo^e is fundamental. And it cannot be denied 
that the determination of this question is one of the 
main duties of examiners under the law, as it now 
stands, but it is not their only duty. 

" The marked defect of our present law of exami- 
nations, if its purport be correctly indicated by the 
practice of boards of examiners, is that feature in it 
which relates to the re-examination of teachers. As 
applied almost everywhere, its results, so far from 
being advantageous to schools, are, in the opinion 
of many intelligent educators, absolutely pernicious. 

" The frequency of these re-examinations requires 
that teachers shall employ a large part of their time 
in grinding over, in a dreary, cramming way, the one 
grist of the common branches, — a process stultifying 
in the extreme. If one were to set out with malice 
prepense to contrive a scheme that should most 
effectually quench, on the part of teachers, aspira- 
tions for a higher life in their calling, and render 
them narrow in all their ways of thinking and doing, 
he could scarcely hit upon one more balefully suc- 
cessful than this. Considering, in addition, the 
exhausting nature of the teachers' school-room work, 
how can any mental growth be expected of him? 
Or is it any wonder that, under such a regime^ he 
should at length give up all hope of growth, and 
sink into a pitiable state of marrowless pedantry, 



275 

content to spend his leisure hours in nosing over the 
dry husks of a useless knowledge ? 

" It may be asked whether we should dispense en- 
tirelj^ with re-examinations. Such is not my view. 
But the re-examinations should be such as to promote 
mental and moral growth, not retard it. Let candi- 
dates who present themselves for examination the first 
time be thoroughly tested as to their knowledge of 
the statutory branches, and if they pass the test 
fairly Avell, let that be the last of it. Let a certificate 
issue for such a time as the rules of the board may 
prescribe, and let the candidate then be notified what 
he will be examined in at the expiration of his cer- 
tificate. 

"There are two kinds of reading every teacher 
ought to do much of, — good books on his profession, 
and the standard literature of his own language. He 
may, of course, go much beyond this limit, and read 
in science, philosophy, and art, with the happiest re- 
sults ; but the reading first mentioned is essential. 
Suppose, then, the examiners assign the candidate 
^^ho has just been certificated, for his next examina- 
tion, one professional book, and one in literature, for 
it is important the field should not be too wide. What 
these two books shall be, is a question requiring 
from the examiners a good deal of judgment. They 
should already have ascertained, with a fair amount of 
exactness, their neophyte's mental power and devel- 
opment. (And here it may be parenthetically re- 
nijirked, our boards of examiners make a mistake in 



276 GRADUATING SYSTEM FOR COUNTRY SCHOOLS. 

confining themselves, as tliey now almost universally 
do, to written examinations. The mental status of a 
candidate cannot be easily determined by the "writ- 
ten examination alone. It needs to be supplemented 
by an oral one. Five minutes' conversation will 
sometimes be worth more than a quire of manuscript 
in settling this question.) 

" We will suppose the newly passed teacher to have 
given evidence of good natural abilities, and of a 
taste for good books. In this case he may be as- 
signed, as his professional work, 'Education as a Sci- 
ence,' by Prof. Alexander Bain ; ' Human Culture,' 
by Michael Angelo or Garvey ; or some other pro- 
fessional work of the higher order ; and in litera- 
ture, the best work of Milton, or Tennyson, or 
Wordsworth, or two or three plays of Shakespeare, 
or some of the essays of Emerson, or Carlyle, or 
Macaulaj^ A candidate of less natural abilities and 
reading: would of course be assio^ned easier books of 
both professional and literary character. 

"On the second examination the candidates would 
receive their old marks on the branches in wdiich they 
had already passed an examination, and have the 
grade of their certificates raised or lowered, accord- 
ing to the results of their special exaraiiiation, — or 
they might fail altogether. For a third examination 
other professional and literary books could be as- 
signed in the same way, and the same course be pur- 
sued in issuing certificates. Such a plan could, of 
course, be extended over any number of years. 



teachers' examinations. 277 

" It is scarcely necessary to call attention to the 
advantages of such a scheme of examinations over 
the one now in vogue, for they must be apparent to 
the least thoughtful. The energizing power of good 
books cannot be readily measured, and their retro- 
active benefits on the schools, through their teachers, 
will be of incalculable value. This scheme of ex- 
amination would be one of the strongest incentives 
possible to continuous self-improvement. Under it, 
indeed, teachers could scarcely avoid this improve- 
ment, if they Avould. 

"City boards already have full power under the 
State statutes ; but to carry out such a plan com- 
pletely in country districts, county boards would 
need additional legislation ; but such legislation could 
be readily obtained, should educators make an ear- 
nest demand for it. The first thinof to be done is to 
create the right sentiment among teachers ; and I 
make no doubt they will most gladly give in their 
adherence to any reasonable proposition to relieve 
them froA the dull routine to which they are now 
sul:)jected." 

I heartily indorse what Dr. Hancock has said in 
the foreo-oino^ article, and I suo:2:est that the " Teach- 
er,' Course of Study" ought to be made uniform in 
all the States. This may be accomplished by the 
following plan : — 

1. The several State teachers' associations should 
submit to the National Council of Education the 
work of preparing a ''Teachers' Course of Study." 



278 GRADUATING SYSTEM FOR COUNTRY SCHOOLS. 

2. Leading educators of the several States should 
use needed effort to secure such legislation as may 
be necessary to inaugurate and carry out this course 
of study. 

The thought of requiring public teachers to pur- 
sue a course of study after they enter the work may, 
to some persons, appear to be novel, but a similar 
plan has long been pursued by several ecclesiastical 
bodies. The Christian minister, in several of the 
leading churches, is required, after he enters the 
pastorate, to pursue a course of study running 
through a number of years, but he is expected to 
pass only a single satisfactory examination upon 
each subject of study. 

No one need fear that teachers who are il wrong Ji 
in the common branches will become "rusty" in 
these, while pursuing a course of reading and study. 
Any good book, careful!}/ studied, fits the teacher 
for better work in any branch from the A, B, C, to 
the highest subject of study. 

Some persons may claim that the " Teachers' Course 
of Study," running through several years, would 
create a great number of classes to be examined 
annually. This, however, need not be the case ; 
as -^ the course of study may be so arranged that 
when any teacher first enters the course he shall 
take up studies pursued by the class that year. In 
a word, all teachers shall study the same lessons at 
the same time. As an example of this, I may name 
the Chautauqua Literary and Scientific Circle, which 



teachers' examinations. 279 

provides a four years' course of study. New mem- 
bers are admitted to the " Circle " at auy time, and 
they take up the course of study at the point where 
they enter. At the end of the four years' course, 
those who entered after the course was commenced 
go back and take up the first year, and pursue the 
course until they come to the point where they 
first entered, when, if found worthy, the}' are 
graduated. It is simply a four years' course of study 
arranged in a circle ; and one time round the ring, no 
difference where the member enters, entitles him 
to graduation. 

I can name no higher example of the successful 
work of a uniform course of study, than the Chris- 
tian Church, in all Bible lands, studying the interna- 
tional Sunday-school lessons. If public educators 
are as wise as Bible students, they will provide a 
uniform course of study for all country teachers. 

If we wish to lift the common-school system to 
higher and healthier grounds, we must first lift the 
country teachers to a higher level. As a means for 
the accomplishment of this end, a "Teachers' Course 
of Study " extending through several years, a sj^stem 
of annual examinations that will measure the height 
and depth and length and breadth of the intelligence, 
culture, and true worth of each teacher, and a plan 
for paying each in proportion to what he is actually 
worth, will be of incalculable value. 



LECTURE XXni. 



TEACHERS SALARY, AND TENURE OF OFFICE. 

Country schools cannot attain the hiofhest deorree 
of perfection unless good teachers are well paid, and 
permanent in their position. Business men are well 
aware that it is impossible to secure skilful workmen 
at starvation prices, or to obtain the best talent for 
positions that are not permanent. 

An excellent authority on educational matters 
recently expressed himself on the sulyect of the 
teacher's salary, in the following sensible ^and busi- 
ness-like manner : — 

" Cheap wages must result in cheap teachers ; and 
cheap teachers will naturally cultivate cheap minds, 
which will fit the pupil for living a cheap life ; that 
is, not attaining to any occupation above a mediocre. 
Let the subject of cheap teachers be thoroughly dis- 
cussed, and it will be found at once that the great 
majority of the educated minds of the country are 
not in favor of cheap educators." 

The pulpit and the press unite in the opinion that 
the salaries paid to public school teachers, at present, 
are insufficient to secure and retain the best teaching 
talent. I ofier the following as representative opin- 



teacher's salary, and tenure of office. 281 

ions of the pulpit and press upon this subject. Rev. 
Henry Ward Beecher says : — 

"If salaries ever should be ample, it is in the pro- 
fession of school-teaching. If there is one place 
where we ought to induce people to make their pro- 
fession a life-business, it is in the teaching of schools. 
Oh, those who are to be taught are nothing but chil- 
dren ! — ?/6»wr children, my children, GotVs children, — 
the sweetest and dearest and most sacred ones in life. 
At the very age Avhen angels would be honored to 
serve them, that is the time when we put them into 
the hands of persons who are not prepared by dispo- 
sition to be teachers, and who are not educated for 
teaching, and who are continually bribed, as it were, 
by the miserable wages that are given them, to leave 
their teaching as soon as they acquire a little experi- 
ence." 

The New York "Tribune " says : — 

"There is no question but that the teachers in our 
public schools should be better paid ; and there is 
also no question that an educated, thorough, and 
liberal service should be demanded of them. At 
present, teachers cannot be severely blamed, if, with 
the poor rewards held out to them, they do not 
thoroughly prepare themselves for their work. The 
matter for wonder is, that teachers who are at all 
qualified should be obtained for such rates of pay, 
and it is certain that the service of the schools holds 
out the smallest possible inducements for intelligent 
and capable men and women to remain in it." 



282 GRADUATING SYSTEM FOR COUNTRY SCHOOLS. 

I am convinced that even with onr present expen- 
ditures for educational purposes, much can be done 
to induce teachers to make more thorough prepara- 
tion, and to remain longer in the work. The follow- 
ing rules for the accomplishment of this end are in 
harmony with the laws of business and common- 
sense : — 

1. There should be a wide difference between 
the wages of the trained and experienced, and the 
wages of the untrained and inexperienced teacher. 

2. The teacher, when once employed, should 
hold his position until he resigns, or is formally dis- 
missed. 

If a man undertakes to build a house, he mnkes a 
wide difference between the wages of the unskilled 
apprentice and the wages of the master mechanic. 
The wider the difference between the wa^^es of the 
skilled and unskilled, in any trade or business, the 
greater the inducement to become master of it. The 
reason why teachers, in many places, make so little 
preparation is, there is no demand for prepara- 
tion. 

In many parts of the country trained and experi- 
enced teachers are offered but little more for their 
services than what is paid for untrained and inex- 
perienced teachers. It is evident that this plan, if 
applied to mechanics and artists, would paralyze 
every motive to become skilful. 

The teacher's salary should depend, not merely 
upon what he knows, but upon what he does. It 



teacher's salary, and tenure of optice. 283 

should depend upon his veal ivorth to the educational 
work. Superintendent G. A. Littlefield, of Law- 
rence, Massachusetts, in speaking of the teacher's 
salary, says : — 

" It seems absolutely right that the main criterion 
in fixing the salaries of teachers should l)e their 
relative ability ; and, with a settled public opinion in 
favor of the system, I see no reason why it should 
not work well, and excellent results flow from it. 
It would certainly seem possil)le to make decisions 
with regard to the worth of teachers with such care 
and accuracy as to command the respect of all con- 
cerned. The permanent and best part of a teacher's 
work, to be sure, is of such a nature that we cannot 
fully estimate it. Its real value will only appear in 
the matured characters of the pupils. And yet 
there are unmistakable evidences of even this price- 
less influence when it is exerted, and no other 
quality of a teacher should receive greater recogni- 
tion. ' Children have more need of models than of 
critics.' " 

But the most discouraging feature in the teacher's 
calling is the dis})osition on the part of so many 
school boards to change teachers every term. No 
other work or business, requiring skill, is subject to 
so many changes. A sensible farmer having a team 
for which he employs a driver is too wjse to change 
drivers as often as some school boards chansre 
teachers. A man having a flouring-mill, for which he 
employs a miller, is aware that he cannot increase his 



284 GRADUATING SYSTEM FOR COUNTRY SCHOOLS. 

custom by frequently changing millers. Successful 
merchants, employing assistant salesmen, could not 
be induced to adopt such a system of changes as 
school boards have introduced in the employment of 
teachers. The teacher should certainly have as fair 
a chance as the teamster, the miller, or the mer- 
chant's clerk ; and the school should not be required 
to bear a strain that would balk a team, ruin the 
custom of a mill, and bankrupt a merchant. 

If, at the end of the term, the teacher of any 
school is not to be retained for the coming term, it 
is but just to him that he should know this, so that 
he may look out a situation somewhere else. But 
the laws of many of the States provide for the ap- 
pointment of teachers so late in the season, that, 
during the summer months, no teacher can tell 
whether or not he will have work for the winter. 
Such laws encourage the teacher to keep one eye on 
the school and the other on somethino: else. Under 
such unreasonable arrangements many of the most 
earnest teachers become disheartened and abandon 
the teacher's calling. If these unwise enactments 
were so amended that teachers might be appointed 
early in the season, say before the beginning of the 
summer vacation, the cause of education would rest 
on a more solid basis. 

Some of the larger cities have thoroughly tested 
the " permanent appointment of teachers," and the 
plan has proved to be so satisfactory to all interested 
parties, that its adoption in pulflic schools is likely 



teacher's salary, and tenure of office. 2S5 

to become universal. Hon. John Swett, ex-State 
Superintendent of California, and ex-city Superin- 
tendent of San Francisco, says ; — 

" It seems to be assumed by the opponents of the 
abolition of the plan of electing teachers ' for one 
3"ear only,' that a cliange would involve a life-lease of 
positions. This is a fallacy. In San Francisco, the 
annual election of teachers was discontinued in 1870. 
Since that time teachers have been elected subject to 
immediate removal at any time for incompetence, or 
for any other good cause. During the past two 
years, at least a dozen teachers have beeen removed 
for 'incompetence.' The bugbear of a life-lease of 
office is a rag-baby, held up by conservatives that 
cannot tolerate the slightest departure from what ' has 
been.' In San Francisco, with its corps of seven 
hundred teachers, the plan is a success. The Board 
of Education is a unit in favor of it. The peo[)le are 
in favor of it. It is no longer an experiment, but is 
a determined fact." 

Superintendent Elliott, of Boston, in a recent 
communication to the School Board of that city, 
says : — 

" I am in favor of electing teachers, once and for 
all, to serve as long as they really do serve the 
schools. It is plain that the teacher w^ill be ben- 
efited, that he has anxieties enough without being 
anxious concerning his re-election, and that if any 
trouble outside of teaching can be spared him, its 
removal will render him better able to meet the 



286 GRADUATING SYSTEM FOR COUNTRY SCHOOLS. 

trouble inseparable from his personal duty. His 
largest resources, both moral and intellectual, are 
burdened without adding a feather's weight of un- 
certainty about his position or his income. More 
than all this, it is only by making him feel reason- 
ably sure of his place, and for as long as he is able to 
fill it, that we encourage him to improve himself. 
He wants time for study, time for growth, and not 
only time, but inclination, — say rather desire, — 
which he can hardly feel if his future is precarious. 
To give him what he needs is to give his pupils what 
they need, even more than he. To him his reap- 
pointment is a question merely of standing or sup- 
port ; serious matter, to be sure, but not the most 
serious of all. To his pupils it is a question of ox- 
ample and influence, of the vigor and labor which he 
stirs in them, of the calmness and patience which 
they are to see in him if they are to cultivate them 
in themselves ; in short, of the force he is to exert 
over their natures in order to do them the good for 
which they have been brought to him. 

" There is one other consideration which seems to 
be of weight against a tenure limited by anything 
short of good behavior. It is that the best teachers, 
or very many of them, will neither seek nor accept 
a place involving re-election. Thus men who would 
adorn our schools turn from them to colleges whose 
professorships, once given, are not to be given again ; 
thus women, from whom a public school might draw 
the very inspiration it requires, pass it by for some 



teacher's salary, and tenure of office. 287 

private institution where they feel they will' he pro- 
tected as well as employed. Such teachers are to he 
drawn to the schools, not by raising salaries or mul- 
tiplying promises, hut by making appointments once 
and for all. There will be no embarrassment as to 
their termination, when the time to terminate them 
comes." 

Hon. M. A. Newell, State Superintendent of Mary- 
land, in an article published in the " Maryland School 
Journal," says : — 

" The system of annual engagements ( where there 
is the power of dismissal at thirty days' notice) is a 
useless labor on the part of the employers, and har- 
assins:, humiliatino:, and demoralizing^ to the em- 
ployes." 

I i)resent, in conclusion, the following extract 
from an editorial in the " National Journal of Educa- 
tion," Boston : — 

" So long as the teacher remains loyal to duty, 
faithful in service, and capable of exercising the 
functions of a discreet instructor of youth, he should 
be retained in the public service i^ermanentl u . In 
demanding such protection for the teacher, we do 
not ask for exemption from the liability to be re- 
moved by the people. On the other hand, the rule 
of permanency makes the teacher constantly liable. 
Under the annual election system, the teacher is 
subjected to a vote of public approval once a year, 
and having secured an appointment, is safe for a 
twelvemonth, crimes and casualties excepted. Un- 



MALES. 

A Diagram, showing the Average 
^Monthly Pay of Teachers, 
Males and Females, in 
the several States. 



1113.00, NeT»d». ^ 



(M.OO, Siatrlot of Colombia. 




FEMALES. 



-,..fT2 0t). ■Wyominf 
L_..f7l;)l) Dialrictof C 
1_ ■»'l>"0 Californ.jL 



.2o_ 




^•uisiana. Kentucky. 



I(V Illinois. Nfbraaks. Peiiinylvann W Virdoit 
1 CIO. Delaware. " * 

Wn.OO KjinsM. Miswari. >.'. Carolina. Wajh Terr 

•J.lKl low.a. Mi».i6»ippi. Tmirea.-fe. 

iOH.nn. Minnesota. 

..tn.nn Michigan. South Carolina, Virginia, 
.ou Choctaw.. Maine. WIsLonam 



on. Ciah. Vemicnt, 



290 GRADUATING SYSTEM FOR COUNTRY SCHOOLS. 

der the tenure-of-office principle, as we hold it, the 
teacher is constantly subject to the law of fitness and 
its recognition ; and the easy rule of such a law in 
service is not a yoke of bondage, but one of the 
most perfect freedom. Should occasion arise, the 
incumbent may be removed at any time, while, under 
the annual election principle, the teacher is master of 
the situation so long as the contract holds. As to 
precedents, the authorities of Germany, France, and 
England all favor the idea of permanency founded 
on good service." 



LECTURE XXIY. 

FREE TEXT-BOOKS IN FREE SCHOOLS. 

Several cities and some of the States are trying 
the experiment of furnishing free text-books in free 
schools. General Eaton, commissioner of the National 
Bureau of Education, in his last report, gives a brief 
account of this movement, which I here present : — 

" From a desire to extend to ever}^ child the full 
advantages of public instruction, the laws of thirteen 
of our States make provision for supplying indigent 
pupils with the needful text-books free of charge. 
These books are understood to be held by the chil- 
dren as a loan, to be returned in the best condition 
possible to tlie school boards after use, and to be 
passed on from session to session, and from child to 
child. The benefits derived from this arrangement 
have been so many and so various as to give rise to 
considerable discussion of the question whether the 
system of a free supply of books by school boards 
would not better be made universal, instead of par- 
tial and discriminating, as it is. 

" The advocates of a system of free supply urge in 
favor of it that it saves expense, the books being pur- 
chased at wholesale ; that it saves time, enough books 



292 CEADUATING SYSTEM FOR COUNTRY SCTfOOLS. 

for every scholar being thus availal)le at the opening 
of each term ; that it secures for a district a desirable 
uniformity of text-books, making the work of teach- 
ers greatly easier and more effective than in other 
cases ; that it thus promotes better classification of 
pupils, so that more time can be given to each class ; 
that it increases the attendance on the schools ; and, 
finally, that it prevents expense and annoyance when 
a pupil goes from one district to another. 

" In view of these advantaofes, our two hiro-est cit- 
ies, New^ York and Philadelphia, have, for a long time, 
furnished free books ; and smaller cities, such as Bath 
and Lewiston in Maine, Fall River in Massachusetts, 
Newark and Paterson in New Jersey, have followed 
their example, with the happiest results. Four of 
the States, too, now explicitly provide for allowing 
the system of free supply. Maine, Massachusetts, 
and Wisconsin leave the matter to be decided \)y dis- 
trict or town meetings and city councils and the local 
school boards ; and New York authorizes city boards 
to furnish books to pupils out of any money provided 
for the purpose. In most of the remaining States 
the laws are silent on this point, except, as before 
mentioned, where a supply for poor pupils is allowed. 
But in California, Iowa, Michigan, New Jersey, and 
Pennsylvania the State superintendents express them- 
selves as decidedly in favor of furnishing free all the 
books needed. Su[)erintendent Carr, of California, 
further ventures the opinion that in the silence < f the 
law there is no obstacle in the way of the adoption 



FREE TEXT-BOOKS TN FREE SCHOOLS. 293 

by any district of the free plan ; and probably, in 
almost any State, districts would be allowed to de- 
cide the matter for themselves, provided that proper 
notice be given beforehand to the people of the 
intention to discuss and determine the question at a 
specified time." 

State Superintendent E. A. Apgar, of New Jersey, 
after thoroughly testing the system of furnishing text- 
books by district taxation, in his annual report of 
1(577, gives the following reasons in favor of the 
plan : — 

" First. The larijest discount can be secured. 
Parents pay fifty per cent more for the books they 
purchase than the district would be obliged to give. 

" Second. The books, when owned by the dis- 
trict, continue in use until they are worn out They 
pass from class to class. There is a very great sav- 
ins: in this. A sins^le child, or the children of a 
fomily, seldo4Ti wear a book out. Ever}^ parent 
knows how frequently he is obliged to purchase new 
books, to take the place of others still in a good or 
fair condition, which his children have finished, 

" TJilrd. Changes in school books are too fre- 
quent. These changes are too often made at the 
request of the teacher, avIio, upon entering a new 
school, finds the books used are not those he is most 
familiar with, and otb.ers he is most accustomed to 
are recommended. If the district furnishes the 
books, the teacher has not the same opportunity to 
secure changes, and they will, therefore, be less fre- 



294 GRADUATING SYSTEM FOR COUNTRY SCHOOLS. 

quent. These changes are not necessary. A good 
teacher will do as good work with one series of 
books as with another. More depends upon who is 
behind the book, than what is in it. 

^^ Fourth. The most important saving is in the 
time of the children. If the district owns the books, 
a child, upon entering school, is assigned his place 
in his classes, and furnished with all the books he 
needs, without delay. He at once enters upon his 
work. Where this is not the case, the teacher first 
ascertains what books the child requires ; he sends 
the list to the parent. Then there is more or less 
delay in purchasing the books. Several days may 
elapse before the father becomes entirely satisfied 
that the books are actually required ; then he finds 
they cannot be had in the district store, and the 
child must wait until some business necessitates a 
visit to the city. Thus the child is unable to take 
his proper place in his classes, and valuable time is 
lost." 

State Superintendent J. P. Wickersham, of Penn- 
sylvania, in his annual report to the Legislature, in 
1878, renews his former recommendation of free 
text-books, as follows : — 

" Boards of school directors are required to adopt 
books for the schools under their care, and to see 
that these and no others are used. But there is 
some doubt as to whether the law now authorizes 
them to furnish text-books to the pupils without 
charge, as they furnish globes, maps, charts, and die- 



FREE TEXT-BOOKS IN FREE SCHOOLS. 295 

tionaries. The plan of free text-books has so many 
advantages, and has worked so well wherever fairly 
tried, that I have no hesitation in askino^ the Lesris- 
lature to remove whatever uncertainty there may be 
with reference to the power of school boards in the 
premises." 

The system of free text-books may be liable to 
some abuses, but it certainly has many advantages. 
The subject should be fully and fairly discussed in 
State and county institutes, and in the public papers, 
so that the people may understand it and decide for 
themselves. 



LECTURE XXV. 

METHODS FOR SECURING ATTENDANCE. 

How to have n complete attendance upon public 
schools is a problem yet unsolved by the American 
people. After experimenting for more than a cen- 
tury upon this question, we have, now, an average 
attendance of but little more than one third of the 
school population of the States and Territories. 

No other obstacle so formidable as non-attendance- 
stands in the way of educating the masses. It is 
evident to every one, that universal education is 
attainable only by universal attendance. How to so 
manage the masses that all children may be brought 
into school is, perhaps, the highest problem of the 
present age. 

Compulsory laws have been enacted in several 
States, and wherever they have been enforced the 
attendance has increased. This enforcement, how- 
ever, has been confined almost entirely to cities and 
towns. There has been very little disposition to 
carry out compulsion in country districts. In some 
of the States where compulsory laws were enacted 
years ago, no attempt has ever been made to enforce 



METHODS FOR SECURING ATTENDANCE. 297 

them, either in town or country, and if not repealed, 
they remain as dead letters upon statute-books. If 
we may judge the future by the past, it is unwise to 
depend upon compulsory laws for securing a full at- 
tendance in country schools. I may further say that 
if we can, by pleasurable methods, bring pupils into 
school, it is far better than to compel them to come. 
The most sensible plan for securing attendance 
that has yet been tried in country schools, is that 
which makes the teacher personally interested in the 
per cent of attendance. The two principal methods 
for accomplishing this end are here presented : 

1. Let the amount of the teacher's monthly sal- 
ary depend, in some degree, upon the average per 
cent of attendance. 

2. Let the teacher's tenure of office depend, in 
some degree, upon a reasonable per cent of attend- 
ance. 

The first method will increase the salaries of live 
teachers and diminish the salaries of dead ones. The 
second method will retain live teachers and dismiss 
dead ones. Both methods should be made a part of 
the school law of every State. This plan makes the 
teacher the paid agent for bringing pupils into school. 
It is cheaper and more pleasurable than compulsion, 
and is near akin to the laws which govern men in 
business and in the professions. 

The merchant's clerk commands a salary, great or 
small, in proportion to his ability to win and retain 
custom. The fees of the attorney and the ph^^sician 



298 GRADUATING SYSTEM FOR COUNTRY SCHOOLS. 

depend largely upon the number of their clients and 
patients. The salary of the Christian minister is 
somewhat dependent upon his ability to command a 
good congregation. 

The active teacher who can secure an averaii^e at- 
tendance of seventy-five or eighty per cent of all 
who are entitled to attend his school is, all else be- 
ing equal, w^orth twice as much as the teacher who 
sits down satisfied with an attendance of thirty or 
forty per cent. As a rule, to which there may be 
some exceptions, the attendance upon a school is a 
fair index to the quality of its inside work. If the 
per cent of attendance is low, there is generally a 
lack of interest in the work of the school. 

Whether the position and pay of the teacher are 
made to depend upon attendance or not, the work of 
securing a full attendance in each school must, in 
many places, be done mainly by the teacher, or it 
will not be done at all. In order to aid teachers in 
the work of increasing attendance, I ofier some sug- 
gestions founded on the customs of political parties 
and religious denominations. Let us take a case for 
the sake of illustration. 

Here is a district or township containing half a 
dozen country school-houses, and the teachers for 
these several schools have just received their ap- 
pomtments. It is evident that the highest success 
in each school cannot be reached unless all who are 
entitled to attend can be present at the beginning of 
the term. Now let these teachers learn wisdom 



METHODS FOK SECURING ATTENDANCE. 299 

from politicians ; let them take the same pains to 
bring pupils into I heir schools that politicians take to 
bring people to the polls, and then see what the re- 
sult will be. 

Let us look at the methods which politicians use 
in securing a full attendance at the polls, and see if 
the same methods will not secui'e a full attendance in 
the schools. What methods do politicians use for 
this purpose ? I answer, — 

1 . They list all the names and see all the " doubt- 
ful ones." 

2. They hold mass meetings, have banners and 
music, make earnest speeches, create emulation, and 
circulate papers. They spare no pains in trying to 
convince people that the success of their cause is es- 
sential to public prosperity. 

Now if the teachers of the district or township, 
directed by the county superintendent or commis- 
sioner, will spend one week, before the school term 
begins, working as earnestly, skilfully, and harmo- 
niously as politicians of the same party work, they 
will hnd a full attendance on the first day of the 
term. But as schools are not like elections, w^hich 
last for one day only, teachers cannot, like politi- 
cians, cease their public efforts after securing one 
day's full attendance. They should, therefore, adopt 
the custom of the churches, and hold public meetings 
at stated periods. No religious or moral enterprise 
will long retain its interest without holdins' meetinofs 
at stated periods. 



300 GRADUATING SYSTEM FOR COUNTRY SCHOOLS. 

Our educational work in the country provides for a 
great many meetings, but most of them are " teach- 
ers' meetings." ^Ve need more educational mass 
meetings, in which the people may take part. 

In order to have a full attendance on the iirst day 
of the term, some teachers adopt the plan of offer- 
ing, beforehand, a reward to all who may be present 
on that day. This plan, though a good one, offers 
no inducements to pupils after the first day of the 
school term. A still better method — one that has 
w^orked with admirable success wherever tried — is, 
for the teacher to offer, before school begins, a 
handsome diploma of honor, to l)e presented, at the 
end of the term, to each pupil who may be entitled 
to it. I present here a miniature form of this di- 
ploma. 



METHODS FOR SECURING ATTENDANCE. 



301 







^jpa^c^ge^t-e^eiye^^^ 



302 GRADUATING SYSTEM FOR COUNTRY SCil;)Oi:.S. 

It will be observed that this diploma requires not 
only regular attendance, but good deportment vaid 
good recitations. The effect of this plan upon the 
attendance, conduct, and diligence of pupils can be 
realized only by those who have tried it. 

But the most successful method for securins: a full 
attendance upon the schools of any county in any 
State is a system of beautiful banners. This sys- 
tem embraces a county banner and a banner for each 
township or magisterial district. The county banner 
is publicly presented, at the end of the school year, 
by the county superintendent or commissioner, to 
the township having the highest per cent of attend- 
ance for the past year, and the name of the town- 
ship, and the year in which the banner is presented, 
are inscril)ed upon it. But this banner is presented 
with the understanding that if at the end of the next 
year the township holding it should not show the 
highest [)er cent of attendance of all the townships 
in the county, then the banner shall be surrendered 
and presented to the township having the highest 
per cent, and the name of the township receiving it, 
and the year in wdiich the banner is surrendered and 
presented, shall be inscribed underneath the name of 
the township which surrenders it. Should an}-^ town- 
ship obtain this banner a second time, the year of its 
second presentation may be inscribed opposite the 
former inscription. 

Each township banner is publicly presented, at the 
end of the school year, to the school in its township 



METHODS FOR SECURIISG ATTENDANCE . 303 

having the highest per cent of attendance for the past 
year, and the name of the school, and the year in 
which the banner is presented, are inscribed thereon. 

Each township banner is held and surrendered 
upon the same conditions as the county banner. 

The county banner, in the course of time, may be 
obtained and surrendered by every township in the 
county ; and each township banner, in the course of 
time, may be won and lost by every school in its 
township. These changes, however, will be made 
only through mighty struggles, some striving to hold 
and others to obtain the banner. Parents, pupils, 
and teachers will voluntarily become recruiting 
accents to brinsf absentees into school. 

This system of school banners should be extended 
so as to create an emulation between the several 
counties of a State, and between the several States 
of the Union. 

A beautiful banner, suitably inscribed, seems to be 
Nature's choice method for creatine: a hio^h de^Jfree of 
interest. Every nation under the sun has its ensign, 
which it keeps before its subjects, whether they are 
on land or sea. No great political party, in any 
country, could be induced to dispense with banners 
in its mass meetings and marches. Great armies, 
mixing in fierce encounter , are cheered when, 
amidst the smoke of battle, they even get a glimpse 
of the flag of their country. 

Late experiments have proven that the banner is as 
essential, and may be made as powerful in the edu- 



304 GKADUATING SYSTEM FOR COUNTRY SCHOOLS. 

cational work, as it is in an army, a political party, 
or a nation. Its influence may be easily tested in a 
single township, county, or State. 

As this sj^stem of school banners for securing 
attendance is a new plan, a brief account of its 
origin may not be inappropriate. While superin- 
tendent of the schools of Monongalia County, West 
Virginia, I introduced several new methods for 
securing attendance. Early in January, 1878, I of- 
fered a beautiful banner, suitably inscribed, to be 
presented to the district (township) that would 
produce the highest average per cent of attendance 
of its entire school population for the year ending 
Aug. 31. In order to show the inscription, I 
present here a representation of both sides of this 
banner. 




^^ 



Free School System Es- 
tablished in "West 
Virginia in 
1863. 

Graduating System first 
introduced in Pri- 
mary Schools of 
Monongalia 
County, 
1876. 

Alumni Organized, 
- 77. 




@&€ES 




The Highest Per Cent of 
Attendance. 




COUNTY SCHOOL BANNER. 



METHODS FOR SECURING ATTENDANCE. 305 

I carried this banner wherever I went in my w^ork 
of visiting schools, and placed it on exhibition in the 
educational mass meetings which were he'd each 
evening. ]Many parents who had never before taken 
an interest in education, commenced sending their 
children to school, and urging others to send, as they 
said, " for the purpose of obtaining the county ban- 
ner." Several teachers said to me, "If we had only 
known of this plan beforehand, we would have had 
all our pupils in school on the first day of the term." 

Finding that the county banner was working so 
admirably, I offered seven district banners, one to 
each of the seven country districts of the county, 
each banner to be presented to the school in its dis- 
trict that wou'd produce the highest average per 
cent of attendance. These banners were all to be 
presented with the understanding, and to be held 
upon the conditions already Stated. The influence 
of these district banners was like local elections in a 
State campaign, — stirring every nook and corner of 
each community in the county. 

In order to show how carefully this banner system 
was carried out in the county, I present the follow- 
ing extract from the published report of the presi- 
dents of the several school boards of the county, 
made at their annual meetinsr held at the court- 
house. 

"MoRGANTOWN, West Va., 
June 24th, 1878. 

" At a meeting of the county banner committee of 
the free schools of Monongalia County, to ascertain 



306 GRADUATING SYSTEM FOR COUNTRY SCHOOLS. 

the per cent of attendance attained by the several 
districts of said county, we, the undersigned com- 
mittee, find, from the reports of the district commit- 
tees, the average to be as follows : — 

" Clinton district, sixty per cent of attendance ; 
Morgan district, fifty-three per cent of attendance ; 
Union district, sixty-seven per cent of attendance ; 
Grant district, sixty-one per cent of attendance ; 
Cass district, sixty-one per cent of attendance ; Bat- 
telle district, sixty-one per cent of attendance ; Clay 
district, fifty-five per cent of attendance. 

" We, therefore, award the county banner to 
Union district, to be held one year, or till it shall be 
excelled by some other district. 

"We find, also, from the reports of the district 
committees, that the following schools are entitled to 
district banners for the ensuing year : — 

"Battelle district. West Warren school, J. Milton 
Shriver, teacher, — eighty per cent. 

"Cass district, Jimtown school, D. Weidman, 
teacher, — seventy-three per cent. 

"Clay district, McCurdysville school, Otis W. 
Waters, teacher, — seventy-five per cent. 

"Clinton district, Martin's school, Wm. J. King, 
teacher, — eighty per cent 

" Grant district, Stewart's Run school, A. J. Ar- 
nett, teacher, — eighty-six per cent. 

"Morgan district. Chestnut Ridge school, John D. 
Gans, teacher, — sixty-nine per cent. 

"Union district. Pleasant Hill school, Adis Zear- 
ley, teacher, — seventy-two per cent. 



METHODS FOR SECURING ATTENDANCE. 307 

" We find, further, that the average per cent of at- 
tendance in the county is about sixty per cent. 
(Signed) 

"James S.Watson, 
S. H. Shkiver, 
James Hare, 
A. W. Bkown, 
Coleman Vandervort, 

CommiUee." 

In the autumn of 1878, before the schools were 
opened, many of our teachers visited their patrons 
and obtained promises that they would send their 
children promptly. Several of our schools had a 
full attendance on the first day of the term ; and the 
efibrts of each district to merit the county l)anner, 
and of each school to merit its district banner, were 
even greater than the previous winter. In some 
parts of the county, clothing and books were quietly 
provided for poor children, and they were brought 
into school for the purpose of increasing the attend- 
ance. 

At the end of the school year the county banner 
was ao^ain awarded to the district that had he'd it the 
previous year; two district banners were retained 
by the schools that already held them, and all the 
other banners changed places. We had expected 
to reach, that year, an average attendance of seventy- 
five per cent, but " mumps " and " measles " pre- 
vailed, during the school term, to such an extent, 
that our attendance was but little over sixty per 



308 GRADUATING SYSTEM FOR COUNTRY SCHOOLS. 

cent. This, however, is about as high an average 
attendance as a country district, where the school 
popvdation embraces all ages, from six to twenty-one, 
can reasonably be expected to reach. It is folly to 
say, as some have said, that our schools are a failure 
unless we have an attendance of one hundred per 
cent of the entire school population. Many per- 
sons who are entitled to attend school have already 
completed the common branches, some are sick or 
distant, some are learning trades or working on 
farms, some are doing housework, and some are 
married. 

It is the duty of the friends of popular education 
to see that all young people obtain, at the very least, 
a fair knowledge of the common branches. In order 
to accomplish this, we should adopt the best methods 
for securing attendance. 

The newspaper may be made a powerful agent for 
increasing the attendance upon our public schools. 
If in this w^ork we can create an emulation among 
the several schools of each township, among the 
several townships of each county, among the sev- 
eral counties of each State, and among the several 
States of the Union, and then use the newspaper 
to promptly make known the results, as we do in 
matters pertaining to elections, we will greatly in- 
crease the interest of the people in the work of se- 
curing attendance. Our school statistics lack fresh- 
ness, because they come so late. 

The National Bureau of Education furnishes much 



METHODS FOR SECURING ATTENDANCE 309 

valuable information, but it comes one or two years 
after the time we ought to have it. The delay is, 
how^ever, not the fault of the Cmmissioner of Edu- 
cation, but want of facilities. I present an interest- 
ins: diairram from his last report. This diairram, 
which shows the relation of enrolment and average 
attendance to the school population of the United 
States, ought to 1)e presented in every newspaper in 
the land. A like diagram could be made to show 
the attendance of the several counties in a State, or 
the several townships in a county. 

The following explanation of this diagram is from 
the " New England Journal of Education," Boston : — 

*' Average Attendance. — The percentage of daily 
averasre attendance is here based on the total shcool 
population of each State, as given in the State cen- 
sus, and is subject to the same variable element as 
appears in the total enrolment table. Another va- 
riable element appears in addition, — the diflering 
lengths of the school year in the general States. 
No two are alike. The school year varies from 
sixty days, the minimum, in North and South Caro- 
lina and Missouri, to one hundred and eighty-eight 
days, the maximum, in the District of Columbia. 
The percentage of daily average attendance is not 
given in the States of Arkansas, Delaware, Minne- 
sota, South Carolina, Texas, and Wisconsin, and in 
the Territories of Dakota, Idaho, Montana, New 
Mexico, Washington, and Wyoming 

" Enrolment. — The central column represents 



AVERAGE ATTENDANCE. 

A Diagram, showing the Relation of 
Enrolment and Average Attend- 
ance to School Population in 
the several States. 



iMtMachusells, 74. 



JTew Hynpslilre, 65 ^ 



Cjinnertlout. Hhode Islar 



Maryland. Pennsylvania, 49. 



"VermoiiU 46. 
Cmifoin'm, MklilBKi). 'Nebraska, 45. 
lowo, Ohio. Utah, 44.. 
Indiana. 43. 
lllinoia, 42. 



Tennessee, 32. 
Kentucky, 31. 
ItllRsiasippi. 
Georgia, 29. 

Alabama, 28 

Maryland, 27. 
^onh Carolina, 26. 
llUsonri, 2 
Tirginia, 24. 

Florida, 22. 



.M.«achu,ovt^ 104. ENROLMENT. 



..Idaho, 98. 



- 20 - 



.-Rhoie Island. 81 

..Termont, 73. 

..ICcliigan, PemisylTanla, 78. 
,.Ioira, CaHfornla, 71- 
..Indiana, 72. 

'..lUin'oia, Ohio. 70. 




^"oTawa^rCm^ct'of Col.^hla, We.t Virginia, <n. 

Colorado, Kevada, Kew York. 65. 
.Utah, 64. 

..IKehraska. Naf Jereoy. 62. 
..Wisconsin, 61. 



Maryland, IJissonri, 5* 



.Tennessee, 5t. 

Mississippi, >'orth CaroUna, ^9 
..Kentucky, 48. 



Tirginla, ■Washington Territory, &. 



\ 



ITew Mexico, ix 
..Arkanaaa, IS. 



312 GRADUATING SYSTEM FOR COUNTRr SCHOOLS. 

the total school population of each State, and is di- 
vided into one hundred parts. The census of the 
school population varies in the several States, afford- 
ing seventeen different standards of school age. In 
the longest the age extends from the fourth to the 
twenty-first year, covering seventeen years ; the 
shortest extends from eight to fourteen years, cover- 
ing a period of six years. The figures on the right 
show the percentage of the school population of each 
State that is enrolled in the schools. Arkansas has 
only sixteen per cent of her school population en- 
rolled, but the school age is from six to twenty-one 
years. Massachusetts has one hundred and four per 
cent in enrolment, while her school age is from five 
to eighteen years Persons using this table must 
bear in mind this important fact of the variable 
school age of the school population of each State." 



LECTURE XXVI. 

FIRST LESSONS IN THE COMMON BRANCHES. 

In this age of steam and lightning, while railroad 
and telegraph companies are extending their lines, 
and fcirmers and mechanics are introducing improved 
implements and machinery for the purpose of accom- 
plishing more work in less time, progressive teach- 
ers are introducing improved educational methods 
for a like purpose. It was once the custom in coun- 
try schools for the teacher to hear each pupil recite 
singly. It is now evident to every one, that under 
the present plan of placing all pupils of like grade 
in the same class, the teachers al)ility to hear recita- 
tions, and his opportunity to throw light upon lessons, 
are infinitely greater than under the former method. 
Country teachers, in former times, were unanimous in 
the opinion that children should learn all the letters 
before beginning to spell, that they should become 
good spellers before attempting to read, and that 
they should be able to read well before undertaking 
to write. Progressive teachers of the present day 
have proven, however, that all these branches may, 
with profit, be taken up and studied together. 



314 GRADUATING SYSTEM FOR COUNTRY SCHOOLS. 

Paradoxical as it mny appear to those who have 
not thought upon this subject, if we will but take 
the hints Avhich nature gives us we will see that chil- 
dren should begin to read before they begin to spell, 
and they should begin to learn words l)efore they be- 
gin to learn letters. For proof of this declaration 
we have but to look at the method by which the 
child learns the names of its playthings, and all their 
parts. Take, as an illustration, a toy-wagon. We 
find that the child learns first the name, — vagon^ 

— and its use ; then the names of its principal parts, 

— wheels, bed, tongue, axles, spokes, hubs, linch- 
pins, etc. And notwithstanding the fact that the 
primary school has attempted to reverse this order 
of nature by i*equiring the pupil to learn first the 
names of the several parts, the mature man adopts, 
in his practice, the methods of infancy. Take, as an 
example, a man who wishes to gain a clear knowl- 
edge of a steam-engine ; he studies first the engine 
as a whole, then the several parts. 

In order to test the practicabihty of the old-time 
school method, let us try it in teaching a child the 
names of the several parts of its toy-wagon. Let 
us take the wagon to pieces and show the child the 
separate parts, and require it to learn their names be- 
fore it sees their use, and before it has any concep- 
tion of their combined beauty. It is evident that 
this process would be slow and laborious ; while un- 
der the child's own method it soon learns all these, 
and we can scarcely tell how or when it learns them. 



FIEST LESSONS IN THE COMMON BRANCHES. 315 

If we try the school method on the mature man, and 
undertake to give him a clear understanding of all 
the parts of a steam-engine, the plan will prove 
equally unsatisfactory. 

For some time past the freshest writers and the 
foremost thinkers connected with primary education 
have been urging the universal adoption of the 
''child's method " in primary schools, and practical 
teachers have proven that the plan works with won- 
derful success. I offer the opinions of some standard 
authorities on this subject. Mrs. Rebecca D. Rick- 
off, of Toledo, Oliio, who recently read a paper be- 
fore the National Educational Association, entitled 
"First School Days," and who is author of a primer 
on primary school work, says : " The child should be 
taught — 

" Firsts To read sentences. 

" Secondly, To read words. 

" Thirdly, To analyze spoken words into sounds. 

^^ Foarthly, To analyze written words into symbols 
of elementary sounds, l^eginning with such words as 
cat, rat, not, etc. ; then such words as that, them, 
ship ; then words with new sounds to the symbols, as 
thin, caper, no ; finally, words with silent letters, as 
cate, rate, noble, etc." 

The " National Journal of Education," Boston, in 
reviewing a new book for primary schools, by Col. 
Francis W. Parker, supervisor of the public schools 
of that city, says : — 

" The lessons are simple, but based upon a definite 



316 GRADUATING SYSTEM FOR COUNTRY SCHOOLS. 

plan — and that an admirable one — of teaching the 
child a vocabulary of words, the signs of ideas, and 
repeating them in such association as to open to it 
new thoughts as well as new words. A few words 
should first be taught thoroughly as the nucleus of a 
vocabulary, and then plenty of good reading will 
give the child facility in expression, as well as an 
understanding of the thought conveyed by the words 
read. Nothing better his been put into i)rint." 

The following appropriate article is taken from the 
'^Primary Teacher,*' Boston : — 

" In starting little folks in reading, it is not quite 
clear that, at the outset, it is best to trouble them 
much with letters, and the sounds they represent, or 
to try to have them derive the word from its phonetic 
or alphabetic elements. The theory seems to be 
very good, too, but we find that, in practice, children 
learn many things contrary to our wise theories. In 
learning to speak the language they skip over the 
elementary laws that govern speech, and are only 
bothered with them when they reach the school. It 
is pretty much the same in learning to sing, indeed 
in learning most things, — the scientific principles do 
not confront the young learner on the start. So in 
learning to read, the normal method, as we view it, 
is to let beginners, if young, go on for a time without 
spelling out the words either by sounds or letters. 
We should teach them words, — dog, cat, chair, — 
precisely as we would the real objects which these 
words represent. 



FIRST LESSONS IN THE COMMON BRANCHES. 317 

" We all know how rapidly children learn the 
names of things about them, becoming acquainted 
with hundreds before they are old enough to be sent 
to school; and they learn them, too, for the most 
part, without being directly taught by any one. 
Then, too, in recognizing objects and sieaking their 
names, they do not fix the eye upon each sc^parate 
part, — as, for example, the object chair, and speak 
each part of the chair before naming the object itself. 
They see the object as a whole, and speak it at once. 
Indeed, in adult age we all do the same. We speak 
words addressed to the eye in the same way, what- 
ev^er method was pursued by our teachers in giving 
us the start. 

" Since children learn the names of things so read- 
ily, why should they not be able to acquire words 
readily? It is found that they will. They will ac- 
quire them surprisingly fast if teachers will make the 
work equally simple, not load the words down with 
elements, which to the little learners of reading are 
not elements. It is best, then, or at least as it ap- 
pears to us, to keep beginners upon words for some 
time, — two or three months, perhaps. Starting out 
with the phonetic elements (complicates the matter 
greatly, and confuses little learners more than one is 
aware of. Besides, it is not necessary. All this fine 
word-analvsis and nice trainino- in the discrimination 
of sounds are proper enough, introduced incidentally, 
or further along in the course, but nothing of the sort 
is essentially needed at the outset. 



318 GRADUATING SYSTEM FOR COUNTRY SCHOOLS. 

" By commencing with words, as the child does in 
learning to talk, omitting the elementary sounds, 
teachers find that their pupils become interested in 
their work almost at once, since in a few days they 
are able to read phrases and short sentences at sight, 
and this newly acquired power pleases them greatly. 
With slate and pencil and proper encouragement they 
begin to imitate the words they have learned, and 
write hoy^ caf, (food, etc., with supreme delight." 

It is now the almost universal practice of the fore- 
most teachers in primary schools to introduce writing 
along with reading, at the very beginning. The 
child is thus trained to ex[)ress thought on slate and 
blackboard in written words, as soon as it can have 
word forms in which to express it. It is found that 
good penmanship can be more easily acquired early 
than later in life ; and it is evident that its acquisition 
in early life will leave more room for other studies, 
demanding reason, in later years. 

The following extract from a lecture by Superin- 
tendent Parker, of Boston, cannot be too highly 
commended : — 

*' Everything should be learned by doing. The 
best way to get a correct idea of any form is to 
attempt to draw it, so have the children draw the 
words, — for writing and drawing are the same thing ; 
the purpose is not to picture the words upon the 
board, but by often picturing them upon the board to 
produce a correct picture in the brain of the child ; 
hundreds of children spell well orally who cannot 



FIRST LESSONS IN THE COMMON BRANCHES. 319 

write the simplest words without blundering; of 
what use is such spelling? There should be no oral 
spelling ill the first two years of school, no reproduc- 
tion of words from memory in that time either, but 
faithful copying from well- written patterns. Wait 
for things to grow in the minrl; ideas gvoio slowly^ 
and if you force a child to a single utterance before 
he is ready you do him an injury. 

" If the firi>t year's work is done, if the first 
year's work is DONE, IF THE FIRST YEAR'S 
WORK IS DONE, there is no trouble with the rest. 

" Begin written compositions in the second year. 
A good beginning is to do something, and ask the 
child to write what you did, upon his slate. Never 
allow a word to be written wrong ; never allow a 
sentence to be begun except with a capital ; never let 
a child guess at the spelling of a word ; if he mistakes 
once, don't let him try again ; write the word correctly 
for him at once, or have another pupil do it ; guesses 
confuse the mind. Say nothing about rules for punc- 
tuation and capitals in a primary department, but 
write your sentences correctly, and insist upon cor- 
rect copies from the pupil." 

Teachers who are not skilful in " printing" upon 
the blackboard, may adopt the method of teaching 
beginners to use script, even before they learn Roman 
letters. Indeed it is now maintained by some emi- 
nent educators that this is the easier and more nat- 
ural method for beginners. A writer in the "New 
England Journal of Education," Boston, in answer 



320 GRADUATING SYSTEM FOR COUNTRY SCHOOLS. 

to the inquiry, " Should script be taught before 
Roman ? " says : — 

" No practical difficulty arises from the use of two 
forms, if the child uses script alone for its first hun- 
dred or two hundred words, and is given its new 
words in script for some time thereafter. The child 
does have difficulty in passing from print to script at 
any period of school-life, and it suffers almost irre- 
mediable injury by use of print first. The infant 
languages of the world are script languages. The 
untaught little child writes ( ?) continuously across 
its slate or paper. In teaching we purpose giving 
the child ideas as fast as he can use them. The com- 
pact and much-used print-form the child gets and 
masters (with no perceptible effort) as soon as he 
needs it. We avoid weakening, even to destruction, 
the child's fondness for using what he knows, and 
his power of thinking and of expressing his thoughts 
in the symbols he at any given time possesses. To 
read and not to write is questionable gain for the 
child. We have not only watched both processes — 
the script-print and the print-script — in scores of 
classes, but have tried both ourselves, and have seen 
no reason to abate our preference for the prior use of 
script, and its abundant use throughout school-life." 
Another correspondent of the same journal says : — 
" In teaching: bes^inners to read we would not teach 
the names of the letters, whether made in script or in 
Roman character; because, 1. It is not necessary. 
If the children have escaped learning them before 



FIRST LESSONS IN THE COMMON BRANCHES. 321 

attending school, they will learn them incidentally, 
and without pains for anybody. 2. It is not desir- 
able. A knowledge of the names of the letters of 
the English alphabet is an obstacle to a child begin- 
ning to learn to read. It interferes with the process 
of teaching reading. The aim of the teacher is to 
teach a word, and, as soon as may be, a phrase or 
sentence in which it is used. His success is hin- 
dered if the pupil's attention is distracted from the 
whole word by any antecedent interest in its parts. 
The child tries in vain to transmute the sound of the 
name he has learned into the sound he does not, 
and cannot know that he ous^ht to q'iyq for each let- 
ter in the word or words before him. 

"In teaching beginners to read we present words, 
phrases, sentences, on the blackboard in script. We 
contmue to present in that way all words whose 
form or significance we wish to impress accurately 
and durably, until at least one hundred script words 
can be read by the pupil in any sentences that can 
be made from them ; we withhold the printed page 
of chart or primer. The script form of a word is 
significant of an idea already alive in the child's 
mind through object-presentation. The letter-parts 
of that form are not significant, with rare excep- 
tions, of anything useful or comprehensible to the 
child. At first we do not teach the forms of the 
script letters. We do not take these forms sep- 
arately and teach them, nor do we call attention to 
them in the words. The child copies all his words 

21 



322 GRADUATING SYSTEM FOR COUNTRY SCHOOLS. 

as wholes. Gradually he becomes conscious of the 
forms composing them, and his drill in penmanship 
fixes correct perceptions of those forms, and habits 
of executing them exactly. We wish the pupil 
from the start to make on slate, blackboard, sep- 
arately and in sentences, that he may surely know, 
on paper, all his new words, and to continue making 
them, and know how to use them. Of course w^e 
give him his copy in the form in which we wdsh him 
to make his w^ords. Besides, the continuous form 
of the script-form assists the teacher to impress, and 
the child to receive, the word as a whole. The dis- 
joined form in which the word appears in Roman 
tempts the eye, until thoroughly accustomed to read- 
ing w^ords, to dwell upon its parts, and confuses the 
child's mental picture of the word. Its components 
stand apart from each other. The impression re- 
ceived is a broken one. It lacks unity, whereas it 
stands for a unit-idea. It is best that the child feel 
that each word is not a combination of characters, 
but a character to represent the idea he has in mind. 
" Moreover, it is easier for both teacher and pupil 
to make words in script form well and rapidly than 
to make them well and rapidly in Roman character. 
A modified Roman character resembling Italic is 
sometimes used effectively, but it also breaks the 
word into parts, and its acquirement mars progress 
in chirography. Furthermore, as is well known, 
children do not pass easily from understanding, 
reading, and making print, to doing the same with 



FIPwST LESSONS IN THE COMMON BRANCHES. 323 

script ; while it is a fact that they do pass with ex- 
treme ease from script to print. A child who knows 
his hmidred or two of words in script will at once 
detect them in print. Taught to read three or four 
readers without using script, he can with difficulty 
read a line of it. So we, at first, teach no letters, 
neither by names nor by form, neither in Roman nor 
in script. We teach words, phrases, and sentences 
in script ; and the children make them in script, from 
copy the first year, from copy and from memory af- 
terwards ; and we very carefully and very slowly 
advance from the first through a regular drill in pen- 
manship. AYe do so not only because we believe 
the process well based in theory, but because we 
have found it to yield better results than we have 
known to be reached otherwise." 

Pupils, when further advanced, should, of course, 
become familiar with the names and sounds of all the 
letters ; but whether they should be kept constantly 
repeating these names in order to learn how to spell, 
is, to say the least, a matter of very grave doubt. 
The fact that so much time has been spent in learn- 
ing to spell, and so few good spellers have been pro- 
duced, is certainly proof that our sj^stem of teaching 
spelling has not been a success. Teachers who stand 
in the front ranks tell us that we have been on the 
wrong track ; that in teaching spelling we have 
used mainly the tongue and ears of the child, 
whereas the mature man in practice uses his hand 
and eyes. I present, in this connection, the follow- 



324 graduatinOt syste:\i for country schools. 

ing frorn a correspondent of " The Teacher," Phila- 
del[)hia : — 

"It fell to my lot to examine the pupils of our 
seventh grade, at the close of last term, and I tested 
them in spelliug, both orally and on slates. Most of 
these pupils were thirteen to fourteen years old, and 
had been going to school about seven years. They 
spelled fairly orally, but all, of course, missing some 
words, as everybody does in oral spelling. In the 
test by writing, they failed much more. Evidently 
they had not yet finished learning to spell. One who 
missed two words orally missed ten with the pencil. 
Oral spelling had not enabled them to spell practi- 
cally. 

" I am strongly inclined to believe that oral spell- 
inof is an actual detriment, and that the immense 
amount of time given to it is wasted. It may be 
different with children ; but we adults never think 
of the letter-names when spelling a new word, fresh 
in the papers. Suppose it is a name in the Afghan 
war, — say Gen. Phayre. If we want to write it, 
we recall the eye-picture of it, and copy that. Now, 
children excel us in this sort of photography. Their 
eye-galleries are less crowded with images, and their 
apparatus clearer and fresher, and impressions firmer. 
If we do not need to go over the jumble ofpee-aitch- 
07/-wi/-ar-ce, for Avriting Phayre as seen in print, it 
does not seem likely that children need to ; but, on 
the contrary, it seems very likely that requiring 
them to learn the oral jingle for each word is an 



FIRST LESSONS IN THE COMMON BRANCHES. 325 

enormous imposition, a stumbling-block that only 
few ever surmount, and one that, in most cases, pre- 
vents education instead of aiding it. 

" Why, indeed, should we keep children through 
all their childhood incessantly repeating, like so 
many parrots, these separate and senseless jingles — 
one for each word — until each is thought to be fast- 
ened in the dull and faithless ear? The eye is vjistly 
quicker, more retentive, and better placed ; and the 
hand alone uses spelling. 

"When we consider these wonderful powers of the 
eye, and how quick the child is in catching and keep- 
ing all the details of a scene, we may fairly expect 
that spelling can be met and mastered by employing 
the e3'e, from the first, to note all word-forms, and 
to guide the hand in shaping them, taking care that 
the eye is not impressed and confused by any spuri- 
ous forms. No other school improvement could 
compare with this in beneficial results. It w^ould be 
the lifting of a heavy, smothering weight off every 
school and every child of all the millions that are 
learnino^ Ensrlish." 

Reading in country schools is as unsatisfactory as 
spelling, because the habit of halting to examine the 
several parts of each word in spelling clings to the 
pupil when he attempts to read. A more rational 
method of spelling will therefore produce a better 
class of readers. Pupils should be trained to write 
sentences and repeat them as part of their reading 
exercises. They will read well their own composi- 



326 GRADUATING SYSTEM FOR COUNTRY SCHOOLS. 

tion because they understand it, and they should be 
encouraged to read the writings of otiiers, as they 
find them in books, just as they would read their 
own. Pupils should not be loaded down with " rules 
for reading," but they should be as free as at home 
or out in the open air. The following rules on read- 
ing are laid down by Superintendent Parker, of 
Boston. These rules, it will be observed, are for 
teachers, not for pupils : — 

"1. Pupils should not be required to express a 
thought (read a sentence aloud) until the thought is 
in their minds ; that is, until the sentence is mentally 
read. 

"2. If the thought is in the mind, it will control 
expression^ thus making attention to punctuation, 
mechanical emphasis, and inflection not only unne- 
cessary, but a great hindrance to the proper expres- 
sion of thought. Capitals and punctuation aid the 
eye in taking the thought, but have nothing whatever 
to do with the expression of it." 

Arithmetic, or exercises in numbers, may be taken 
up along with the first lessons in reading and writ- 
ing. Each beginner should be provided with balls 
placed on a wire by which to learn to count, add, 
subtract, multiply, and divide. The following arti- 
cle on primary arithmetic is from " Barnes' Educa- 
tional Monthly," New York : — 

"1. The pupil should be taught to count at first 
only to 12 or 15. But he should never count with- 
out counting something. Let there always be objects 
before him to be counted. Adhere strictly to this. 



FIKST LESSONS IN THE COMMON BRANCHES. 327 

"2. Teach him to make the Arabic figures as far 
as he has counted. When he has counted to five, 
and has five pieces of chalk (for instance) before 
him, then have him make the figure five. Do like- 
Avise with the other numbers, carrying the same phin 
to hundreds when they are more advanced. 

" 3. When he can write numbers to four or five, 
teach him to add and subtract these, both mentally 
and upon slates or board. Continue until he can 
perform the operations very rapidly. When he can 
count and write to ten, teach him to add and subtract 
all numbers beloAv ten, and in this manner continue. 
At length derive multiplication, addition, and division 
from subtraction, and drill him in these operations. 

"4. An hour before recitation, which should 
occur just preceding the 11 a. m. intermission, place 
upon the board examples in addition, subtraction, 
etc., omitting the answers, for the class to solve at 
their seats upon slates, and have the work brought to 
the class for the correction of answers and other crit- 
icisms. During the recitation some work should be 
done on the board by them, and a very brief analysis 
required. •Examples may be both abstract and con- 
crete. 

"5. Intersperse the above work with drill in 
rapid combination, in counting by twos and threes, 
etc., by requiring them to invent and solve concrete 
examples, and by occasional work in Roman notation 
up to one hundred. 

" 6. The common errors of method in this liranch 
arc such as the omission, for a long time, of any 



328 GRADUATING SYSTEM FOIl COUNTRY SCHOOLS. 

written work ; the attempt to teach counting in the 
abstract to a thousand, perhaps, without having 
them count things; the attempt to teach them to 
w^rite numbers to l)illions before they can add to 
himdreds ; the omission of any written work at seats 
between recitations." 

Geography and history are inseparal)ly connected, 
and should always be studied together. The first 
step in teaching these branches is to give pupils a 

clear conception of the 
earth, as a whole, — its 
form and motions. It is 
evident that a good globe 
is essential to success at 
this point. 

The latest and simplest 
apparatus for impressing 
the form and daily motion 
of the earth upon the minds 
of pupils is the "Time 
Globe." In order to give 
a clear idea of this globe, 
I present the following de- 
scription and cut : — 

"The ^Time Globe' is a 
globe apparently endowed 
with life, having a diurnal 
revolution exactly corre- 
sponding to that of the 
earth. It is a miniature 




FIRST LESSOXS IN THE COMMON BRANCHES. 329 

representation of the earth in position and daily motion, 
revolving once in twenty-four hours upon its own 
axis by means of chronometer vrorks located in its 
interior. It gives local time on dial above the noi-th 
pole, and the time of any and all parts of the world 
is read at a glance on the equatorial zone. It shows 
at all times the position of different parts of the 
earth, with reference to midday, midnight, morning, 
or evening twilight. It measures the comparative, 
and, by simple computation, the exact size of any 
country on the globe as it passes the meridian ring 
and equatorial dial. It illustrates the difle'rence in 
time between any two or more places. It can with- 
out injury be put in sidereal position or placed hori- 
zontally to be used as a clock. All parts of its sui- 
face can be readily examined. It runs several days, 
is a stem-winder, and regulates from the outside." 

After pupils have become acquainted with the 
earth as a complete body, they will enjoy learning 
something of its several parts. The several grand 
divisions, oceans, and most important island, should 
then be pointed out on the globe. No books should 
be used in the study of this subject until after pupils 
have become familiar with the most important places 
marked on the globe. If all our school-maps were 
placed on globes, pupils could certainly gain a 
clearer idea of the relative position of the most im- 
portant places on the earth's surface. Books should 
be introduced, therefore, only when the class needs 
information which the school-globe does not furni^ii. 



330 GRADUATING SYSTEM FOR COUNTRY SCHOOLS. 

While assigning lessons in either geography or 
history, the teacher should see that each member of 
the class has, before commencing to study the les- 
son, a clear understanding of the direction and 
distance of the place or phices referred to in the 
lessons. Without this understanding pupils might 
as well study lessons in " dreamland." 

Free-hand map-drawing should be practised daily 
in connection with the study of geography and his- 
tory. The child's hrst eflbrts may produce only 
rough sketches, but the countries sketched will be 
thereby photographed in the memory. State Super- 
intendent J. W. Dickenson, of Massachusetts, in a 
circular letter to teachers, says : — 

"Every map as studied should be drawn in outline, 
upon slates or paper. With a little practice such 
drawings can be made in very little time. There is 
no method comparable wath map-drawing for fixing 
geographical knowledge in the memory. Have exer- 
cises in representing the various natural features 
quickly and accurately upon the blackboard. Reci- 
tations in geography should be largely guided by a 
special outline previously written on the blackboard. 
This practice saves much talking on the part of the 
teacher, and cultivates independence in the pupil." 

But pupils should study the people and products 
of the several countries on the face of the earth more 
than they should the boundary lines of these coun- 
tries. They should learn the names and location of 
the most important places only. Learning long lists 



FIRST LESSONS IN THE COMMON BRANCHES. 331 

of names and location of unimportant places is time 
worse than Avastecl. It is burdening the mind with 
knowledge that is not needed, and nature will throw 
it off as soon as possible. There is so much life on 
the land and in the sea, that geography ought to be a 
living subject rather than a dead one. 

If we undertake to teach universal history, we 
should first present the world in its most perfect 
form, — the present. If we undertake to teach the 
history of a nation or country, we shoald first present 
its current history ; then we may, with profit, study 
the past. It is true that this plan rather reverses the 
usual order of studying history. Too many com- 
mence with the past, and never come up to the pres- 
ent. This is too true, even of teachers. Professor 
Saulsbery, an experienced conductor of normal in- 
stitutes, says, in the Wisconsin "Journal of Educa- 
tion " : — 

*' Teachers, with rare exceptions, do not read nor 
greatly interest themselves in the history of the 
present. They know something of Jackson's admin- 
istration, and more of Washington's, but nothing at 
all of Grant's or Hayes's. Events of a hundred years 
ago are more famiUar to them than those of the past 
ten or fifteen prolific years. The ancient history of 
our country, and of the world, is better attended to 
than the modern or recent. Whatever may be the 
cause of this, the fact itself is lamentable. It in- 
dicates such a state of immaturity and mental child- 
hood on the part of those who assume to teach, or 



832 GRADUATING SYSTEM FOR COUNTRY SCHOOLS. 

such a degree of dead indiflerence as to the world's 
ongoings, as ought in citlier case to startle those 
who come in contact with it." 

Beginners should have lessons in current history 
presented on the blackboard, until they become fa- 
miliar with the present, before they undertake to 
study the history of the past. 

The bare mention of English grammar is almost 
enough to frighten beginners, therefore children 
should be trained in speaking and writing correctly 
without any intimation that this is English grammar. 
They should be early impressed with the fact of the 
wonderful beauty of language when written and 
spoken in its best form. The best method of teach- 
ing beginners how to speak and write correctly, is to 
have them speak and write correctly. 

Professor Greene, author of Greene's English 
Grammar, in an address before the Rhode Island In- 
stitute of Instruction, said : — 

" I believe in wr.ting very early, and having chil- 
dren taught at an early age to put their thoughts into 
writing. Then you can point out improvements, and 
show the child why the improvements are made, and 
why they are improvements. If I were a teacher in 
the primary school, I would adopt this motto from 
beginning to end : 'Every lesson shall be a language 
lesson.'" 

Hon. E. E. White, ex-State school commissioner 
of Ohio, but now president of Purdue University, 
Indiana, says : — 



FIRST LESSONS IX THE COMMON BRANCHES. 333 

" The study of the English language, though it is 
the most difficult of all the school studies, ought to 
be the most interesting. Pupils should not be re- 
quired to memorize pages of dry, wearisome notes 
and observations as found in text-books. A knowl- 
edge of the meaning and relation of words is of 
first importance in all reading lessons, and this study 
of lanofuao-e must be commenced lono^ before a jjram- 
matical text-book is used. The reading lesson should 
be made the prominent exercise of the day. 

" The correct use of lansruaofe is a matter of habit 
rather than of technical study of the rules of gram- 
mar. It should be a part of the w^irk of the teacher, 
either in classes of higher or lower grade, daily to 
correct the inaccuracies of speech resulting from bad 
habits of pronunciation, and in the use of language. 
No provincialisms, no slang or careless pronunciation, 
should be allowed to pass unnoticed. Questions 
should be direct, answers concise. Every answer 
should be a complete sentence." 

A thoughtful teacher can readily see that while he 
is training his pupils in speaking and writing, their 
inquisitive natures desire an acquaintance with the 
source from which he obtains his information. Sup- 
pose, for example, the teacher has occasion often to 
correct his pupils in their use of certnin irregular 
verbs ; a list of these verbs, and exercises illustrat- 
ing the proper method of using them, will prove in- 
teresting and profitable to the entire school. So all 
the several parts of English grammar may be made 



334 GRADUATING SYSTEM FOR COUNTRY SCHOOLS. 

pleasiira1)le, provided each part is presented just 
when pupils feel their need of it. 

Constant exercises in writing, together w^th cor- 
rections made by the teaclier, will convince pupils 
that they need a more thorough knowledge of the 
laws of language, and by the time they are old 
enough they will be anxious to take up English gram- 
mar as a branch of study. When each pupil, b}^ 
careful study, has become acquainted with his English 
grammar, he should be encouraged to use it as he 
does his dictionary, as a book of reference. 



LECTURE XXVII. 

HINTS UPON TEACHING WRITING. 

Penmanship, in this the latter part of the nine- 
teenth century, is, perhaps, more generally neglected 
in country schools than any other branch in the com- 
mon school course. In many parts of the country 
good penmanship appears to be reckoned among the 
"lost arts." 

Writing, as a medium for the communication of 
thought, is almost as important as speaking. For 
this reason, it has been said that " writing is a sec- 
ondary power of speech, and they who cannot write 
are in part dumb. Scrawls that cannot be read may 
be compared to talking that cannot- be understood ; 
and wa-iting difficult to decipher, to stammering 
speech." 

Feeling anxious to offer the highest helps of the 
ablest instructors, I applied to Prof. D. T. Ames, 
editor of " Penman's Art Journal," New York City, 
asking him to prepare an article that might be both 
an incentive and an aid to better penmanship. This 
he consented to do. The cuts for the illustrations 
of his article arc chiefly from " The Spencerian The- 



336 GRADUATING SYSTEM FOR COUNTRY SCHOOLS. 

oiy of Penmanship," and inserted by courtesy of the 
publishers, Messrs. Ivison, Blakenuin, Taylor & Co., 
New York. The remaining cuts were kindly fur- 
nished by Prof. Ames. I here i)resent Prof. Ames's 
article, without further comment. 

Of the great importance to all classes of a rapid, 
graceful, and legible handwriting, I scarcely need 
speak. To the young man it opens more avenues to 
desirable and lucrative employment than any other 
one qualification. To a young lady it is not only 
a rare accomplishment, but to such as are required to 
earn their own livelihood, it is the one most ready 
and available. 

To be able to awaken and maintain earnest thought 
and study on the part of the pupil, and skilfully 
direct the same, is a paramount qualification for suc- 
cessful teaching. Indeed, the poAver to do this is the 
real secret of the wonderful success that has attended 
the labors and immortalized the names of our great- 
est teachers, not of writing alone, but of all depart- 
ments of education. The interested and attentive 
pupil is always a success, while the indifierent pupil 
is a certain failure ; the former seems almost to drink 
in knowledge, while the latter receives it as by force. 
Many teachers of writing rely mainly upon the imi- 
tative power of pupils for their success, which is a 
fatal error; writing should be taught mechanically 
more than by imitation. 

An imitative pupil may manifest remarkable prog- 



HIXTS UPON TEACTimG WRITING. 337 

rcss, and be able to imitate with the greatest fidelity 
the most perfect copy, so long as it is before him, 
and yet write mi)st awkwardly when it is removed, 
from the fact that there remains no correct mental 
conception or ideal of writing to guide his practice. 
It is not so with the pupil who has been taught 
mechanically, and has learned the correct analysis of 
each letter, studied its form and construction, at the 
same time that the errors in his own writing have 
been criticised and corrected according to established 
rules and principles; though he may, at the outset, 
be greatly distanced by the imitative genius, he 
will, in the end, become much the more skilful. 
The removal of the copy matters little to him, its 
form having become so completely impressed upon his 
mind that it continues, as it were, constantly before 
him, a perfect ideal, to reproduce which the hand 
will ever strive, and ultimately attain. Writing, in 
all its grace, ease, and perfection, must first clearly 
exist in the mind before the hand can, by any 
amount of exercise, be taught to produce it. The hand 
can never transcribe a form more perfect or beautiful 
than the ideal of its master, — the mind. Hence the 
vital importance of preceding and accompanying all 
practice, in writing, with a careful study of its me- 
chanical construction. The exercise or copy for each 
lesson should be short, embracing but a few letters ; 
and they should be systematically arranged so as to 
present, forcibly and concisely, at each lesson, some 
important feature of writing. 

The observation and experience of more th'^u 



338 GRADUATING SYSTEM FOR COUNTRY SCHOOLS. 

twenty-five years as student, teacher, and author of 
writing, have led ms to believe that every person 
possessed of ordinary faculties can and should learn 
to write Avith facility, at least, a legible hand. That 
they do not, is due alike to the faults in our methods 
of teaching and practice. The first great fault has 
been with the teachers and authors of systems of 
writing, that they have given to the pupil too many 
and too complicated forms for letters, apparently in 
the belief that the more numerous and fanciful were 
their forms, the greater the evidence of their own 
skill and deserved popularity. Not unfrequently in 
a single copy-book, or a short course of twelve or 
twenty lessons, has the pupil been required to jorac- 
tise upon from two to four distinct and radically dif- 
ferent types or forms for all the capitals and many of 
the small letters of the alphabet, and all or most of 
these forms much too complicated to l)e practical for 
rapid business writing. I will here illustrate in the 
case of one letter, and this is no fancy sketch, but 
from a case of actual observataion. I have found all 
the following types of the letter R in a single copy- 
book, and have seen them all, and others, taught or 
attempted, by a teacher of writing, in a short course 
of ten lessons : — 




HTXTS UPON TEACHING WRITING. 339 

This method carried through the alphabet would 
require the pupils to practise upon one hundred and 
eigJdy different forms for the capitals alone, and a 
corresponding, though necessarily less, number for 
the small letters, all given and practised often with- 
out any sort of system or science. Is it any wonder 
that the pupil is a discouraged failure at the end of a 
course of such diversified practice upon complex and 
multitudinous forms? 

The labor and practice necessary to become skil- 
ful in making such a multitude of difficult forms is 
too great to be overcome except by rare genius, or 
the most persistent and prolonged practice. The 
multitude must fail ; while, if required to make but 
twenty-six of the most simple forms, and those re- 
duced by system to seven elementary principles, the 
multitude can and will succeed. 

Another fruitful cause of failure is found in the 
effort of many, perhaps most, teachers to teach writ- 
ing almost or quite wholly by imitation, by which 
method pupils acquire little or no al^solute or perma- 
nent idea of the true form or consti^uction of letters 
or the general style and excellence of writing. They 
may succeed well at imitating their copy so long as 
it is before them, but fail utterly to write well when 
it is removed. This will not be the case when it is 
systematically and analytically taught ; each letter 
being accurately analyzed, its correct form and man- 
ner of construction explained by the teacher, and un- 
derstood by the pupil, at the same time that his 



340 GRADUATING SYSTEM FOR COUNTRY SCHOOLS. 

writing is thoroughly criticised and its faults pointed 
out and corrected according to well-established prin- 
ciples. Where this is done the eye and understand- 
ing are disciplined and taught as well as the hand, 
and there remains impressed vividly upon the mind 
of the pupil a clear and well-defined conception of 
the form and construction of his copy, so that, though 
literally absent, to the mind's eye it is ever present, 
and is a perpetual copy, for the mastery of which the 
hand will ever strive and will ultimately accomplish. 
Unlike the pupil who practises without system or 
principle by imitation, and who not only ceases to 
improve, but actually goes backward, when the in- 
struction ends, and the copy is removed, the analytic 
pupil will continue ever to advanc*e, and is certain, 
ultimately, to become a good writer. 



HINTS UPON TEACHING WRITING. 341 

HOW WRITING SHOULD BE TAUGHT. 
POSITIONS. 

The first care is to secure and maintain the correct 
positions of body, arm, hand, and pen. The position 
at the desk or table will be governed somewhat by 
circumstances. In the school-room, where desks are 
>mall and narrow, we think a position with the right 
side to the desk will be the best, thus : 




In business colleges and writing academies, where 
the table or desk is more spacious, and especially in 



342 GEADUATING SYSTEIM FOR COUNTRY SCHOOLS. 

the study and practice of bookkeeping, where the 
books are often large and numerous, also by artists 
and penmen working upon large pieces of work, the 
front position will be found the best, thus : 




In this position the same relative position of hand, 
pen, and paper should be maintained as described in 
the former one. 

Another position at the desk, sometimes advo- 
cated by authors and teachers, is the right oblique, 
which is a position between the front and side. 

In our opinion, which of these positions is to be 
adopted should be governed by the circumstances 
of the writer or the class-room. 



HINTS UPON TEACHING WRITING. 



343 




Some authors and teachers have also advocated a 
position of presenting the left side to the desk, m 
favor of which we have nothing to offer, for we be- 
lieve either of those above described entirely prefer- 
able ; yet the position at the desk is of much less 
importance than that the proper relative positions of 
the pen, hand, and paper should be sustained nud ob- 
served. 




344 GRADUATING SYSTEM FOR COUNTRY SCHOOLS. 



PENHOLDING. 

Take the pen between the first and second fingers 
and thumb, letting it cross the forefinger just for- 
ward of the knuckle (a) and the second finger at the 
root of the nail (b) J of an inch from the pen's point. 
Bring the point (c) squarely to the paper, and let the 
tip of the holder (d) point toward the right shoulder. 

The tliuDih should be bent outward at the first 
joint, and (e) touch the holder opposite the first 
joint of the forefinger. 

The first and second fingers should touch each 
other as far as the first joint of the first finger ; the 
third and fourth must be slightly curved and separ- 
ate from the others at the middle joint, and rest 
upon the paper at the tips of the nails. The wrist 
must always be elevated a little above the desk. 

These positions should be rigidly maintained, thus 
keeping the nibs of the pen flat upon the paper, and 
both always under the same degree of pressure, when 
the pen will give a smooth, clear line, and move 
smoothly and easily upon the paper. 



MOVEMENTS. 

These positions secured, attention should be di- 
rected to movements, all of which should be explained 
and illustrated, and the peculiar advantages and dis- 
advantages of each set forth. 



HINTS UPON TEACHING WRITING. 345 

There are four different movements more or les.s 
employed in writing. 

The First, or Finger Movement, is most generally 
used and taught by unprofessional teachers, and 
practised hj most unskilful writers, and is so called 
because the fingers alone are employed in giving 
motion to the pen. Writing by this movement is 
less rapid and graceful than that by either of the 
other movemerits. It is more of a drawing process, 
it seems to be the most easy and natural to acquire, 
and, being th^ only movement known or taught in a 
large majority of our public schools, it is practised by 
a very large p "oportion of people outside of the mer- 
cantile and professional pursuits. Most of the latter 
have found >t necessary to gain some further knowl- 
edge of writing than that acquired in our public 
schools, so they have either attended a commercial 
school or received instructions from some professional 
teacher of writing, and Lave been instructed in other 
movements. 

The second is the Fore-arm, or Muscular Move- 
ment. By some teachers it is called the Spencerian, 
and by others the Carstairian, being so called after 
the names of two of its most noted and skilful teach- 
ers and advocates ; this movement is obtained by 
resting the fleshy or muscular part of the fore-arm 
upon the desk, and then by simply contracting or re- 
laxing the muscles of the fore-arm a very rajoid, 
graceful, and tireless motion is imparted to the hand 
and pen ; but it is only when combined with the fin- 



346 GRADUATING SYSTEM FOR COUNTRY SCHOOLS. 

ger, producing what is known as the Third, or Com- 
bination Movement, that it is employed to the great- 
est advantage. In this movement the muscles impart 
rapidity and endurance, the fingers accuracy of form, 
and ease in making the extended letters, thus ren- 
dering it, as a whole, by far the best and most desir- 
able movement for practical writing. 

The Fourth, or Whole Arm Movement, is the most 
graceful and rapid of all the movements; it is also, 
when employed on a small scale, much less accurate, 
and hence less desirable for practical writing. It is 
used to advantage only where considerable license is 
allowable, as, for instance, in writing dates, signa- 
tures, superscriptions, blackboard writing, etc. To 
be able to employ this movement with skill requires 
much and continued 4Dractice. Its proper and skil- 
ful use is, however, an important accomplishment to 
the professional penman. It is obtained by raising 
the entire arm free from the table, resting the hand 
lightly upon the nails of the third and fourth fingers, 
and then striking the letters with a full sweep of the 
whole arm. This movement is also used in all off- 
hand flourishing. 



MOVEMENT EXERCISES 

should be frequently and extensively practised, and 
a short exercise should precede the regular practice 
of every lesson. The object is threefold. First, to 
secure a free, graceful, and rapid general movement 



HINTS UPON TEACHING WRITING. 



347 



to the fingers, muscles, and fore-arm. Second^ a 
special upward and downward motion ; and Thirds a 
lateral movement of the hand. To secure the first 
two, exercises like the following should be practised : 




To secure the lateral movement, the following or 
similar exercises should be practised : 




The major part of the time for the first, considera- 
ble of the second and third, and a part of the time 
for ever}^ lesson of a course, should be devoted to 
careful movement exercises. 

These exercises, as Avell as all the copies of the 
course, should be either engraved or written upon 
short movable slips, and passed to each pupil of the 
class with the opening of each lesson. 

We are now prepared to present the principles 
and begin the analysis and practice of writing, which 
we do by placing upon the blackboard the principles. 

At the same time we brieflv illustrate to the class 



348 GRADUATING SYSTEM FOR COUNTRY SCHOOLS. 

their use and importance in learning to write, by rap- 
idly making a few monograms embracing the entire 
alphabet, capitals and small letters; showing the 
close resemblance between the form and construc- 
tion of many of the letters of the alphabet, and how 
very simple and easy is their construction from these 
principles. , 

This can be very clearly and strikingly illustrated 
in the case of the small letters by a monogram repre- 
senting them all as follows : 




We then combine the capitals in three monograms, 
those having the fifth principle for their base, thus : 




Making the letters and subsequently arranging 
them in groups, each embracing those letters that 
most resemble each other in their form and manner 
of construction, thus : 



// 


/ 


yy r/r^—r^^~- ,/ ./ 




■///■. 


-^//// 


^-^/ ,_^ ^-^j ^^^ 


Oi^Cy// c 


^i//y' 


( y •Cj L^y^L^yiy 




/■/ 


// 


y 


/^> /"> y > 


.^y 


y .-u. 


/ ^ ^!^ / >y 


^ ^ 


^7^ 


i^7 


y uyj [yiy 



HINTS UPON TEACHING WRITING. 



34 9 



Monogram embracing the letters having the sixth 
principle as base is made as follows : 




and the letters separately, thus : 



m^ 





Monogram of seventh-principle letters would be 
made thus : 




and the letters, thus : 



a ^iJ (c 



By this method the great simplicity and practicabil- 
ity of this plan of teaching and practising writing is 
fully brought home to the mind and understanding of 
the pupil, and also the great importance of master- 



350 GRADUATING SYSTEM FOR COUNTRY SCHOOLS. 

ing thoroughly, at the outset, these elementary forms 
or principles of writing. I will briefly define these 
principles. 




No. 1 is simply a straight line, shaded or unshaded. 
No. 2 is a right curve. No. 3 a left carve. No. 4 
combines a right and left curve to form the loop. 
Principle No. 5 is a direct oval, whose length is 
twice its width. No. 6 is an inverted egg-shaped 
oval. No. 7 consists of an unshaded left and shaded 
right curve of equal length and degree of curvature, 
forming a com[)Ound curve variously called capitol 
stem, master stroke, chirographic curve, line of 
beauty, etc., to which is added a left curve which in- 
tersects the other two curves at the point of their 
union, forming an oval The stem slanting on an 
angle of fifty-two degrees, and the oval on an angle 
of fifteen degrees ; the oval should be twice as long 
as it is broad, so, if divided into sections, it would 
have four spaces in length and two in width. 

The correct angle of slope will be best illustrated, 
thus : 




The class w^ill now make this principle after a few 



HINTS UPON TEACHING WRITING. 351 



moments' practice. Robert, and several others, are 
found to be making it thus : 



c/ef 



"WTiile James, and others, are makino: it thus 



Other members of the class are also making equally 
conspicuous faults. We now make upon the black- 
board strokes representing the most prominent faults 
of the class, and illustrate. Robert has made the left 
curve too long and the right curve too short, and not 
on same decree of curvature ; while the second left 
curve defines more nearly a circle than an oval, and 
intersects the downward stroke below the centre, and 
would be corrected, as indicated by the dotted lines. 
After sufiicient attention has been given to the 
analysis and practice of the capital stem, we add to 
it a line to make the 






which we practise briefly, and then add the small 
letters forming a short word for a copy, all of which 
is written upon the blackboard and analyzed before 



352 GRADUATING SYSTEM FOR COUNTRY SCHOOLS. 

being practised by the class. Follow this in the 
same manner by the 





and so on through the alphabet, — presenting the cap- 
itals in groups most similar in their construction and 
analysis. 

By thus using a short copy we are be:ter enabled 
to concentrate the entire thoughts and practice of the 
pupil upon a few points in writing at a time, which 
will be more clearly understood and thoroughly mas- 
tered than if he were to practise upon a copy em- 
bracing most of the alphabet and all the principles 
and characters of writing. * If such a copy were fully 
analyzed, so much would be said, and so many points 
presented, as to cause utter confusion, and its entire 
effect would be lost, and the corrections of faults too 
numerous to be either remembered or guarded 
against in subsequent practice. 

Where copy-l)ooks are used having long copies, 
they should, in the early stages of practice, be writ- 
ten down the page by sections of not more than one 
fourth its length, thus concentrating the practice and 
criticism upon a few letters at a time. The leading 
faults of the class while practising the copy should be 
pointed out and corrected at the blackboard. Gen- 
eral faults in writing would be corrected by writing 
the copy upon the blackboard in such a manner as 
to magnify the foult, and then show how it can be 



HINTS UPON TEACHIXG WKITING. 353 

best corrected. For instance, the bad effect of dis- 
proportion in size of letters can be strikingly illus- 
trated by writing the copy, thus : 




Having care to make each letter, by itself, as nearly 
perfect as possible, showing, thereby, that perfect let- 
ters alone cannot make good writing. The correc- 
tion of tliis fault can be greatly aided by ruling a 
guide line for the top of the letters. 

At the next lesson illustrate the bad effect of un- 
even spacing, thus : 

At the following lesson we would present the 
special beauty of a variety in slant in writing, thus : 




Slant, though quite different, will not be specially 
conspicuous in the contracted letters, but may be 
made to appear strikingly so by drawing extended 
lines through the parts of the letters, thus : 




354 GRADUATING SYSTEM FOR COUNTRY SCHOOLS. 

We then illustrate all the essential qualities of cor- 
rect writing, by writing the copy correctly upon a 
scale, thus : 




This method pursued earnestly through a course 
of even twenty lessons will not fail to secure to the 
attentive pupil not only marked improvement, but 
will so discipline his eye, and idea of the correct 
forms and cnaracteri sties of good writing, that he 
can scarcely fail of ultimately writing, with facility, 
a legible and graceful hand. 



LECTUKE xx\an. 

HINTS UPON TEACHING MAP-DRAAVING. 

Dra^ving is now regarded, by the foremost teach- 
ers, as the most effective method of fixing the form of 
any object in the mind. It is practised with profit 
in the study of all the common branches, and in no 
other is it found to be more helpful than in the study 
of geography. The old method of learning geog- 
raphy by memorizing boundary lines, and long lists 
of names of places, is giving way to the more sensible 
method, — map-drawing. 

As the object of this lecture is simply to help 
those who have had no instructions in map-drawing, 
I shall not attempt to fully discuss this subject, but 
rather to give some helpful hints, hoping thereby to 
lead teachers and pupils to form such a taste for map- 
drawing that they will wish to follow it further. The 
method that I present is known as " Apgar's System 
of Free-Hand Map-Drawing," which is a plain 
method, a method well suited to the work of our 
country schools. The illustrations presented are 
taken from " Apgars' Geographical Drawing Book." 
They are original, and have been patented, but are 
used here by permission of the patentees and au- 



356 GRADUATING SYSTEM FOR COUNTRY SCHOOLS. 

thors, Messrs. E. A. and A. C. Apgar, of Trenton, 
New Jersey. The cuts for these illustrations were 
furnished by the publishers of the above-named 
book, — Messrs. Cowperthwait & Co., Philadelphia. 
Most of the suggestions which follow are also taken 
from the foreo^oins: w^ork, but neither susrsrestions nor 
illustrations are arranged in the exact order in which 
the authors placed them. 

The study of geography consists largely in a 
study of the form and locality of the features of the 
earth's surface. Maps give a much better idea of the 
form and locality of geographical features than can 
be obtained from descriptions only ; hence maps 
should be among the principal objects of study in 
geography. That form is easiest remembered which 
the hand is taught to trace. The exercise of the 
mind, needed to teach the hand to trace a form, im- 
presses that form upon the mind. As the study of 
maps is a study of form, the manner of studying 
them should be by map-drawing. In learning to draw 
maps, the pupil needs some rule or guide to assist 
him in drawing them correctly, and also to enable 
him to judge of their accurac}^ when drawn. This 
assistance is l)est afforded by the use of geometrical 
figures or diagrams. The diagram used in each case, 
in order to answer the purpose intended, should be 
so constructed as to coincide as nearly as possible in 
its outline with the boundaries of the map to be 
drawn. By the relative lengths of the lines of which 
it is composed, it should express the general laws of 
form of the map it is intended to accompany, and 



HINTS UPON TEACHING MAP-DRAWING. 



357 



by its angles and division- marks the position of 
prominent features should be determined. However 
complex and irregular the map may be, the diagram 
should be so simple that it can be readily constructed 
and easily remembered by the pupils. In the con- 
struction of the diao'nims used for drawins^ the conti- 
nents, the first line in each case serves as a measure 
for determinincr the lens^ths of the other lines. 

I present here a diagram of North America, with 
directions for drawing it. By comparing this dia- 
gram with a map of North America it will be seen 
that they nearly agree in outlines. 
A 




DIAGRAM OF NORTH AMERICA. 



358 GRADUATING SYSTEM FOR COUNTRY SCHOOLS. 

Directions for Drawing. — Diagram. — 1. Draw a 
quadrant, and divide it into four equal parts, as represented 
in rig. 1. Through the first division point at 2, and the 
right angle at a, draw the first line of the diagram the length 
desired for the map. 

2. From the centre of this line draw the line CjD at right 
angles with it, and one half its length. Connect A and i>, 
and B and D. 

3. Extend the line CB toward E, making the whole length, 
B E, equal to AB ov B B, and draw lines from A to E and 
from E to B. 

4. Divide the line A E into four equal parts, and from the 
upper division point, at H, draw the line 7i Jat right angles 
with A E, and equal to ^ C in length. Connect A and I. 

6. Divide the line E B into two equal parts, and from its 
centre, and at right angles with it, draw the line G K one 
half the length of E C. 

6. Divide the lines CB and CB each into two equal parts, 
and the lines A B and BB each into six equal parts. 

7. Subdivide the lower division of the line B B into three 
equal parts, and from the division point at 14 draw a line to 
the right to 15 ; and from 15 draw one toward the south to 
16 ; and from 16 draw another to the right to 17, — making 
the length of each equal to two thirds of the distance from 12 
to J^:. 

It will be observed that if the diagram is correctly drawn, 
the lines AB,E B, and B B are equal in length, and the line 
^ ^ is vertical. 



Mg. 2. 

Fig. 2 represents a convenient ruler for pupils to use in drawing maps upon 
the blackboard. It is twenty inches long, and divided into halves, thirds, fourths, 
and sixths. A similar one, six inches long, may be used for drawing on slate or 
paper. 



HINTS UPON TEACHING MAP-DRAWING. 359 




Fig. 3. Fig. 4. 

Fig. 3 represents an easy method for i Fig. 4 represents an easy method for 
drawing a Quadrant. | trisecting a line. 

Note. — In the construction of diagrams, and in the division of lines, 
the pupils should at first be allowed to use a ruler, such as the one rep- 
resented in Fio. 2. This is important, iu order to insure accuracy. 
After some practice, however, the ruler should he dispensed with, and 
the figures should be drawn by hand, guided only by the eye. 

In drawing a quadrant, a piece of crayon held between the thumb 
and first finger may be made to describe the arc around the end of the 
fourth finger, as represented in Fig. 3. A vertical and a horizontal 
line drawn from the centre to the arc will complete the quadrant. In- 
stead of the hand, a short string, with a piece of crayon tied to the end 
of it, may be used ; or each pupil may be furnished with a (juarter of a 
circle, cut out of a piece of writing- i>aper, having the divisions of 
quarters and sixths marked upon it. 

In dividing a line into thre • equal parts, use the finger of one hand 
and a crayon in the other, and place them so that the three parts ap- 
pear equal, as represented in Fig. 4. 

In dividing a line into four or six parts, first bisect it, and then 
bisect or trisect each half. 

It will be observed that the different lines of the diagrams are drawn 
in t!ie order they are lettered, and tliat the divi.sious are made in the 
order they are numbered. 

In drawing upon paper or slate, the diagram should be in very light 
lines For blackboard work, the figure should be drawn with a slate- 
pencil. At each board should hang a rule, a triangle, a rubber, and a 
pointer. 

PosiTioisT. — ^ orth America is situated north of the 
Equator, and is joined to South America by the Isthmus 
of Panama. 

Extent. — The greatest length of the continent, extend- 



360 GRADUATING SYSTEM FOR COUNTRY SCHOOLS. 

ing from Point Barrow, on the north, to the Port of Guate- 
mala, on the south, is 4,S00 miles. This length is represented 
by the first line of the diagram. 

General Pokm. — llie general form of North America 
is triangular. It is wide toward the north, and narrow 
toward the south. The Arctic and Atlantic coast lines are 
nearly straight in their general directions, while the Pacific 
coast line is curved. 

Points of Coincidence. — The position of Point Bar- 
row is determined by the northern angle of the diagram ; 
Cape Charles by the eastern angle ; port of Guatemala by 
the southern angle ; Bay of San Francisco by the western 
angle ; and the western extremity of Alaska peninsula by 
the northwestern angle. 

Draweng the Map. — Arctic Coast. — Commence at 
Point Barrow, Make the mouth of the Mackenzie Kiver op- 
posite to the first division ; Victoria Land on the second ; 
the mouth of Hudson Bay between the third and fourth, and 
Ungava Bay and Cape Chidley near the fifth division. The 
southern extremity of James Bay touches the line C D, near 
its centre. 

Atlantic Coast. — On the line D 5, between Cape Charles 
and the first division, draw the Gulf of St. Lawrence. Make 
the peninsula of JSIova Scotia without the line, and opposite 
the first division ; Cape Cod north of the second, and Cape 
Fear at the third. The western shore of Florida peninsula 
crosses at the fourth division. The mouth of the Gulf of 
Mexico is between the fourth and fifth divisions ; the north- 
ern shore crosses the line CB near its centre, and the west- 
ern shore is on the line E B. Cape Catoche is near the fifth 
division and the shore of Central America, and the Isthmus 
of Panama follows closely the zigzag line extending from 12 
to 17. 

Pacific Coast. — Commence at Point Barrow. Draw 
Kotzebue and IN'orton Sounds without the line, and Bristol 
Bay within. ]S"orton Sound is near the centre of the line. 
The southern shore of Alaska follows closely the line I H, 



HINTS UPON TEACHING MAP-DRAWING. o()l 

and the remaining portion of the western shore of the con- 
tinent deviates but little at any one point from the lines of 
the diagram. California peninsula extends nearly as far 
south as the angle at iT, and the eastern shore of the Gulf of 
California crosses the line K G near its centre. 

Note. — It will be observed that the Lake of the Woods is on the 
line CD, midway between the centre and C; also that Lake Erie is 
midway between the centres of the lines CD and B D, or between the 
points 2 and 3 on the diagram. 

In map-drawing exercises the pupils may either be 
required to describe their work in full, without the 
assistance of questions, or the lessons may consist 
of a series of questions and answers. After the dia- 
gram is made the class is prepared to draw the map, 
— first with the atlas in hand, and afterwards from 
memory. Every order given by the teacher should 
be executed by the class simultaneously, and with 
military promptness and precision. The execution 
should commence immediately after the last word of 
the order is given. Each pupil is supposed to have 
his own diagram on the board upon which he draws 
his map. 

For the States no additional diagram is used^ be- 
cause the bounding lines are generally straight, and 
they themselves, when taken together, form a geo- 
metrical figure. In drawing the States, therefore, it 
is only necessary to select one of the straight lines 
forming the boundary for a measuring unit. The 
line selected should be a convenient measure or mul- 
tiple of the other lines. 

In conducting exercises in map-drawing, the class 



362 GRADUATING SYSTEM FOR COUNTRY SCHOOLS. 

should be practised, first, in drawing upon the 
blackboard, under the immediate direction of the 
teacher ; second, in drawing upon slates, their work 
to be submitted to the teacher ; and tJiird,\\\ ex- 
ecuting maps upon paper, to be presented for the 
criticism of both the teacher and the class. 

Either the teacher or one of the more skilful 
pupils should execute a w^ell-finished and accurate 
map upon the l)lackboard. From this drawing — 
which is much to be preferred to any printed outline 
map — the class may recite their lesson ; and upon it 
each of the new features, as they are learned from 
day to day, may be represented. 

It is Avell to accompany every lesson in map-draw- 
ing with more or less practice in rapid sketching. 
In order to excite emulation for quick work, the 
lesson may be drawn on the board and the exercise 
timed by the teacher. Pupils, by practice, will soon 
be able to draw a diagram in half a minute, a State 
in from half a minute to two minutes, and a 
continent in from three to live minutes. Concert 
recitations should frequently accompany rapid sketch- 
ing. 

An exercise called talking and chalking will Ix 
found both interesting and valuable. The pupil, 
while he is drawing a map, briefly, and in a lively 
manner, describes the features as he represents 
them ; his verbal explanations all the while keeping 
pace w^ith his illustrations made with the chalk. 

All directions and exercises in map-drawing should 



HINTS UPON TEACHING MAP DRAWING. 363 

be such as to prepare the pupil to draw rapidly, ac- 
curately, and without the copy. 

Alter the pupils have learned to draw a map with 
sufficient accuracy, and are able to describe satisfac- 
torily the features it contains, they may, with the 
use of colors and India ink, be taught to draw and 
embellish one for preservation. Not much time, how- 
ever, should be spent in producing highly orna- 
mented maps. A slate-pencil and slate, lead-pencil 
and paper, white crayon and blackboard, are all the 
materials usually needed in map-drawing exercises. 
Rapid work, and much of it, should be the motto. 

Special attention should be directed to the method 
employed for representing the population of cities 
and the heights of elevations. The syml)ols used 
will greatly assist the memory in retaining the-e facts. 
Special lessons may be given to teach their meaning. 
Their use should be required in all map-drawing ex- 
ercises. 

I will conclude this subject by presenting two 
pages of symbols ; one showing the signs used to 
represent the population of cities and towns, and the 
other the signs used to represent the elevation of 
mountains. 



364 GRADUATING SYSTEM FOR COUNTRY SCHOOLS. 



EXPLANATION OF THE SIGNS 

USED TO REPRESENT THE POPUI-ATION OF THE 

CITIES AND TOWNS. 



riPwST CLASS. 

In the First Class only one Sign is userl viz. a round dot. 
Q represents under 10.000 Inhabitants. 

SECOND CLASS. THIRD CLASS. 

Each Line of the Second Oass The markings of the Third Class 

represents a population of 10.000. Lave a Dot in the centre. Each 
Line upon this Dot represents 
100.000 population. 

a lo.ooQ ®- Joo,ooo 

+ 20,000 +- 200,000 

-ft 30.000 * 300.000 

# 40,000 * ^'^■°°0 

^. 50,000 # 500,000 

^ ^o.ooo ®-- ^fi^ 

^ 70,000 ^- -700.000 

^ 80,000 W- 800.000 

^ 90,000 9 900.00O 

FOURTH CLASS. 

The markings of the Fourth Class have a Dot and Circle ( ® ) i n 
the centre. Each Line upon this Dot and Circle represents 1,000,000 
Inhabitants. 

m 1,000,000 •^- 3.000.000 

4"- 2.000.000 #. 4,000,000 

System Patented October 16th, 1866. 



HINTS UPON TEACHING MAP-DRAWING. 



365 



EXPLANATION OF THE SIGNS 

USED TO REPRESENT THE 

ELEVATION OP THE T^IOUNTAINS, 



RANGES. 

Hill and Mountain Ranges, Like tho Cities, are divided into Four 
classes. The First is represented by a series of Parallel Curves; the Se, 
cond by a series of Interlocking Curves ; the Third by a Waved Line; 
and the Fourth by a Zigzag Line ; as follows: 



»)))>:»)));)))))))) I'irst Class or Mills,— TTuder 2000 ft.Trigh. 



^A.^K0k, 




Second Class,— Between 2000 & 8000 ft. "high. 



J''^''V%. °^ between. >^ and J i^ miles high. 

Hard Class,— Between. 8000 & 16,000 ft. llgh, 
|y '% or Between 13^ and 3 miles high. 

FourOi CTass, -Over 16,000 feet high, 
or over 3 miles high. 



PEAKS. 

Tor Peaks under one mile high each Curve upon the right represents 
One-Fourth of a mile Elevation; for those one mile high or more, each 
Line upon the right represents One Mile in Elevation and the Dash 
underneath One Haifa Mile. 



O ;i of a mile high. 


A 


2^ mileHliigh. 


n\ 3i' „ .. 


A 


3 


m ^ u „ 


A 


3J^ ,, ., 


A 1 ., .. 


A 


4 „ .. 


-A 3^ miles high. 


A 


iy^ .. ,. 


A 2 „ » 


A 


5 ., ,. 



System FattnLtd October 16 th., 1866b 



LECTURE XXIX. 

HINTS UPON TEACHING LETTER-WRITING AND BOOK- 
KEEPING. 

The pen is seldom used by country peop'e except 
in writing letters and keeping accounts. If it be 
true that children ought to learn, in school, what 
they will practise in later life, then it is evident that 
they should there learn how to write letters and 
keep accounts. The slipshod style of writing and 
directing letters, and the unsystematic and unsatis- 
factory manner of keeping accounts, seen and prac- 
tised in all parts of the country, prove that these 
subjects have not received sufficient attention in 
public schools. In many schools the subject of let- 
ter-writing and book-keeping is not so much as 
hinted at by the teacher. 

In order to present, forcibly, the importance of a 
knowledire of letter- writins^ viewed from a business, 
social, and intellectual standpoint, I offer the follow- 
ing extract from WestJake's admiral )]e book, " How 
to Write Letters," published by Sower, Potts &Co., 
Philadelphia : — 

"As letter- writing is the most generally practised, 



LETTER-WRITING AND BOOK-KEEPING. 367 

SO also it is the most important, practically consid- 
ered, of all kinds of composition. This will more 
fully appear from the following considerations : — 

"1. Lf.tter -writing is indispensable in business. 
All persons have business of some kind to transact, 
and much of it must be done by means of letters. 
To he able to write a good letter is greatly to a per- 
son's advantage in any occupation. Many good sit- 
uations are obtained by teachers, clerks, and others, 
on account of this ability, and quite as many are 
lost for the want of it. 

"2. Il is a social oblir/ation. Wg are naturally 
social beings ; and pleasure, interest, and duty 
equally demand that our friendships and other social 
ties should be maintained and strengthened. In 
many cases this can be done onl}^ by means of let- 
ters. No one would willingly lose out of his life the 
joy of receiving letters from absent friends, nor 
withhold from others the same exquisite pleasure. 
It may be stated, also, that a person's social, intel- 
lectual, and moral culture is indicated in his letters 
as plainly as in his manners, dress, and conversation; 
and it is as great a violation of propriety to send an 
awkward, careless, badly written letter, as it is to 
appear in a company of refined people with swag- 
gering gait, soiled linen, and unkempt hair. 

"3. It gives intellectual culture. Letter writing 
is one of the most practical and interesting exercises 
in English composition, — one that is suitable for 
persons of all grades, from the child just learning to 



368 GEADUATIXG SYSTEM FOR COUNTRY SCHOOLS. 

write, to the man of highest attainments. It adbrds 
exercise in penmanship, spelling, grammar, diction, 
invention, — in short, in all the elements of composi- 
tion ; and gives ease, grace, and vivacity of style. 
Many who have become distinguished in other kinds 
of writing, have acquired much of their power and 
fluency of expression by their practice of writing 
letters. Of these Robert Burns is a notab'e exam- 
ple. In fact the letters of distinguished men and 
women form a distinct and important department of 
literature ; and some who are recognized as standard 
authors would long ago have been forgotten but for 
their admirable correspondence." 

It is not my purpose to suggest that letter-writing 
should be made a l)ranch of study in the common 
school course, but rather to insist that the teacher 
should be familiar with the best forms of directing, 
heading, introducing, and concluding letters, and 
that he should occasionally present these forms for 
the benefit of his pupils. A pleasing and profitable 
exercise of fifteen or twenty minutes may be had in 
the school-room, once a week, by presenting upon 
the blackboard any separate part of the subject of 
letter-writing. In order to make this matter clear, 
I ofter some illustrations of the method by which 
letter-writing may be taught. The quotations which 
I make, and the models which I present, were all 
taken, by permission, from Westlake's "How to 
Write Letters." The cuts for the models were fur- 



LETTER-WRITIXG AND BOOK-KEEPING. 369 

nished hy Messrs. Sower, Potts & Co., Philadelphia, 
publishers of the above-named l)ook. 

Let the teacher take up, for the first lesson, the 
subject of the ''^ superscription^''^ which is the outside 
address that is put upon the envelope. In order 
that the lesson may seem to be a reality, each pupil 
should have several envelopes. The teacher may 
then draw upon the blackboard the form of three or 
four envelopes, with directions upon each, and 
accompany the same with instructions, while his 
pupils direct and stamp real envelopes. Old stamps 
may be used for this purpose. The following in- 
structions and forms may be presented. 

If the person addressed lives in the country or in 
a small tow^n, the following form should be used : — 













p_ 












Stamp. Q 












"^oo^^ 




cJkt'dd 


'^A-ezt-Ca/Ze. 


C/'e-i'nA'/e^ 








J^te-e-^ -ui-ao. </^ 


^^-ct^-a^e. ^-a 






c/f. ^. 



Whenever it is desirable that, in case the letter 
should not be called for within a certain period, it 
shall be returned to the writer, the following form 
may be used : — 

24 



370 GRADUATING SYSTEM FOR COUNTRY SCHOOLS. 



If not called for in ten days, return to 


$^—^ 


ELDREDGE &. BROTHER, 


Q Stamp. 


IT North Seventh Stbbet, 


Philadelphia, Pa. 


LJ 




o4^. 


#e # #^;^^.^, 




(QdA/tZ^i/^ 




^^€ly/U^4^.-t<t. 



If the person addressed lives in a city, this form 
should be used. 



Stamp. 



%. cT. (f/- 



^/ 



<&/"/., 



1^<14^^ 



€ldd. 



The following rules and suggestions for directing 
letters, punctuating the superscription, and affixing 
the stamp upon the envelope may be either placed 
upon the blackboard or read aloud to the pupils : — 

" 1. The name should be a trifle below the middle 
of the envelope, and should begin near the left edge. 



LETTER-WRITING AXD BOOK-KEEPING. 371 

sometimes close to the edge, sometimes one or 
two inches from it, ticcording to circumst.'inces ; and 
the other parts should be written at equal distances 
under it, each a little farther to the right, so that the 
last part (State) shall come near the lower I'ight- 
hand corner. 

"2. Put a period after every abbreviation and 
after the last word. Put a comma after each item 
(that is, each line if properly written), except the 
last. If a title is added to the name, put a comma 
between the name and the title ; if two titles are 
added put a comma between them. 

"3. Place the stamp on the upper right-hand cor- 
ner of the envelope at about one eighth of an inch 
from the end and half as far from the top. It does 
not look well when placed close to either edge. 
Why this is so we cannot tell, but that it is so is 
undeniable. Perhaps it is for the same reason that 
a picture looks best with a white margin all around. 
The stamp is a picture, and should, of course, be 
right end up." 

The folio win Of note of warnino^ cannot be too care- 
fully impressed upon tiie minds of pupils : — 

"A letter wilt not be forwarded unless it is pre- 
paid at least three cents. About 400,000 letters are 
every year sent to the dead-letter office because they 
are not properly stamped. The superscription 
should be plainly and legibly written, especially 
the name of the post-office and the State. If the 
name of the State is short, write it in full ; and if 



372 GRADUATING SYSTEM FOR COUNTRY SCHOOLS. 

jibbreviations are used, take care to form the letters 
correctly. Pa. andVa., Penii. and Tenn., N. Y. 
and N. J., are particularly liable to be confounded. 
Hundreds of letters are sent to Trenton, N. Y., that 
were intended for Trenton, N. J., and vice versa. 
Often letters are missent on account of sheer care- 
lessness on the part of the writer. Of the 3,000,000 
or 4,000,000 letters that go to the dead-letter 
office every year, about 70,000 are not properly 
directed, and between 3,000 and 4,000 have no 
directions whatever." 

At the conclusion of the lesson each pupil, after 
writing his name upon the back of his envelopes,- 
should deliver them to the teacher, who may examine 
them at his leisure and use the time of the next 
week's lesson in commendations and criticisms upon 
these envelopes, after which they may be returned 
to the pupils. 

The teacher may take, at another lesson, the sub- 
ject of the "Heading of Letters," which is a state- 
ment of the place where, and the time when, the let- 
ter is written. Each pupil, for this lesson, should 
be supplied with several sheets of letter-paper. The 
teacher may then place upon the blackboard the 
following : — 



LETTER-WRITING AND BOOK-KEEPING. 373 

MODELS OF HEADING. 
3Iodel 1. 

Model 2. 

]<3.'3a,C^€l'y. , Cy^(Q)€t^ 2.0. -/(f<f<?. 



Model 3. 






2.2., -f^gO. 



Model 4. 

222 GmQ)<i-e/-td,<X'i^ O^.^ C/^<^ ^l^ii.'tA^ 

If preferred, this beading may be arranged as fol- 
lows : — 

Model 5. 



222 Ci^iQ)i:z</-t'd-o.'n. O^-v 



'U-e^^ue, 



Model 6. 

Residence and date at tbe bottom. 

Place of signature. 

Si^y-'^'^^ Cy4'f^€idd.^ C^Mezy, -/ ^Sgo. 



374 GRADUATING SYSTEM FOR COUNTRY SCHOOLS. 

These several models of heading should be copied 
by each pupil, on as many sheets of letter-paper, 
accordinsr to the following' directions : — 

" On ruled paper, the heading should begin on the 
first line, a little to the left of the middle; and it 
may occupy one, two, or three lines (never more 
than three), according to circumstances. If th( 
paper is not ruled, the positions should be the same 
The parts of the heading should l)e separated hy 
commas, and a period should be placed at the en(^ 
of the heading, and after each abbreviation." 

While the pupils are copying the foregoing models 
the teacher may go among them and give needed 
instructions. At the conclusion of this lesson, pupils 
should be directed to preserve carefully the sheets of 
paper containing these models to be used at several 
subsequent lessons. 

At another time the teacher may take up the sub- 
ject of the "Introduction of Letters," which consists 
of the address and the salutation. The address, 
when complete, consists of the name and title of the 
person written to and his directions. The salutation 
is the term of politeness, respect, or affection with 
which we introduce a letter; such as. Dear' Sir, Mt/ 
dear Friend, My dear and honored Father, etc. 

In order to make the matter more clear, let the 
teacher place upon the blackboard, for the pupils to 
copy, several of the following models of introduction. 
Pupils should use the paper which contains the head- 
ings presented in the last lesson. 



LETTER-WRITING AND BOOK-KEEPING. 375 

MODELS OF INTRODUCTION. 
Model 1. — business Form. 

S3 C^-^-^^ 



^€^0^ <^& 



■lytd. 



Note. — The body of the letter usually begins under the end of the 
salutation, but when the address is long, as in the above model, it 
may begin in the same line as the salutation, in which case a dash 
must precede it. Thus : — 

Model 2. — Business Form. 



Note. — It will be observed that in Model 1 the salutation begins 
under the initial figure of the second line, while in Model 2 it begins 
under the initial letter of the first. 

Model 3. — Business Form. 
Si-ad^^o^^ Cymtzdd. 



376 GRADUATING SYSTEM FOR COUNTRY SCHOOLS. 

Or it may be arranged as follows : — 

Model 4. — Busmess Form. 
(y!/iQ>eddAd. ^^^m.^^1^ J2<i^ae4y^ ^ '^W^^ 

Model 5. — Business Form {to a Lady), 



i)idd ^Ai,4^ c/. 

If the lady were married, Madam, or Dear Madam, would follow 
the address, as in Model 8. 

Model G,— Official Form 






CiylJC^ <./t^ -^-Oy^^l.^iyt 



-/^ ^C f.ci-^^d-'i'yi/i^ ■^-ed^ettt'ty^n- 'i^ny^ d^A^cd^y -e^. 



LETTER- WRITING AND BOOK-KEEPING. 377 



Model 7. — Social Form. 



-le-pu^c-M^ 'i^c^^^e.e/, -e^-c 



"When the name of the correspondent is not given at the top 
(as in Models 7, 9, and 10), it should be written at the bottom. 

In addressin*"^ a member of the religious society of Friends, 
no title is used. , 

Model 8. — Social Form {Formal). 



-oyL 






Model 9. — Social Form (Domestic). 



'-i/i^-oe (J/ ^ud^ ^-tA^ 



d^Ci^iypt-^^ 'C/^-i^^-^d Ay^i'-ti-e- ■ciyOC'i^A^ye^y -e^^. 



Model \0,— Social Form {Familiar). 
'U'Cdy^ <t-ei:z4. j^L^e^^^cc^ -tz^A-i^u^e^ ^^-c^ciyj^^ ■e^vc. 



378 GRADUATING SYSTEM FOR COUNTRY SCHOOLS. 

The teacher, at another time, may take up the 
subject of the " Conchision of Letters." The follow- 
ing definitions and suggestions may aid him in pre- 
senting this sul)jcct : — 

" What is technically known as the conclusicjn of a 
letter is that which is added after the communication 
itself is finished. It consists of the complimentary 
close, the signature, and sometimes (wdien not at 
the top) the address of the person written to. The 
complimentary close is the phrase of courtesy, re- 
spect, or endearment used at the end of a letter. As 
in the salutation, the particular words used vary 
according: to circumstances. Social letters admit of 
an almost infinite variety of forms of complimentary 
close. In business letters, or letters of any kind 
written to strangers or mere acquaintances, the cus- 
tomary form is ^ Yours truly,' or ^ Yours respect- 
fully.' These may be emphasized by very, as 

* Yours very truly,' or varied by inversion, as 

* Truly yours.' Official letters have a more stately 
and formal close. 

"Every letter should be signed in a plain, clear 
hand, and if it contains anything of importance, the 
name should be w^ritten in full. If the writer is a 
lady, she should, in writing to a stranger, so sign her 
name as to indicate not only her sex, but also 
whether she is married or single. 

" The complimentary close is written on the next 
line below the end of the letter proper. If too long 
to look w^ell in one line, it mny occupy two, or even 



LETTER- WRITING AND BOOK-KEEPING. 370 

three lines. The signature is written on the next 
line below the complimentary close, near the right- 
hand edge of the sheet. The close and signature 
must be arranged similar to the parts of the heading 
and introduction ; that is, they must present a regu- 
lar slope downward and to the right. A comma is 
required after the complimentary close, and a period 
after the signature. If the close is long, other points 
may be required, as may be seen by consulting the 
models given below. The address, when placed at 
the bottom, is punctuated the same as when placed 
at the top of the letter." 

In order that the forms of concluding letters may 
be fully impressed upon the minds of pupils, the 
teacher may write upon the blackboard, and allow 
his pupils to copy, upon the lower part of the sheets 
used at the former lessons, the folio wins' : — 



MODELS OF CONCLUSION. 
(The dotted liue stands for the last line of the letter.) 

Model 1. 



^J^-iiAd 4-e4-/i.ec^;^ 



a^e^z^yy, c/. C/^c/aymd. 



3 so GRADUATING SYSTEM FOR COUNTRY SCHOOLS. 
Model 2. 






Model 3. — TFi^A AMrm. 



-dCtt^^^^/n^c^^ 



Model 4.— O^ciaZ. 






<^., 



, . ■aAAyC'yi 

■a 
I' 

Model 5.— Tfii/i DaU, 



(^i/e^lyU, '^U^C^M^ ^<52^^(3f. 



LETTER-WRITING AND BOOK-KEEPING. 381 

The teacher may take, at another time, the sub- 
ject of the " Body of Letters." The following defini- 
tions and suggestions are intended to aid in the pres- 
entjition of this subject : — 

" The body of the letter is the communication 
itself, exclusive of the heading, introduction, and 
conclusion." This part of the letter is an original 
composition, and the writer ought not to be ham- 
pered by stereotyped phrases. The pupil, however, 
needs instructions in this as in other kinds of compo- 
sition, and may be greatly aided by the following 
directions : — 

"A blank margin should always be left on the 
left-hand side of each page, — not on the right. The 
width of this margin should vary with the width of 
the page. On large letter-paper it should be about 
an inch ; on note-paper, about three eighths of an 
inch. Indeed, if the sheet is quite small, a quarter 
of an inch will answer. A margin that is too wide 
looks worse than one that is too narrow. The mar- 
gin should be perfectly even. Letters, as well as 
other compositions, should be divided into para- 
graphs, if they speak of different and disconnected 
things. For example, if, after speaking of affairs 
at home, the writer turns to speak of himself, he 
should make a new paragraph. Do not make too 
many paragraphs. Sometimes persons make the 
mistake of making a paragraph of every sentence. 
It is a matter that depends wholly on the sense. A 
letter may consist of only a single paragraph. On a 



382 GRADUATING SYSTEM FOR COUNTRY SCHOOLS. 

large letter-sheet, the parngraphs should begin about 
an inch to the right of the marginal line, that is, the 
line of writing ; on note-paper, they should begin 
about three fourths of an inch to the right of this 
line. 

" Letter-writing presupposes the ability to write a 
leo^ible hand. But we should not be satisfied with 
mere legibility ; we should endeavor to attain to 
neatness and elegance. A letter should be regarded 
not merely as a medium for the communication of 
intelligence, but also as a work of art. As beauty 
of words, tone, and manner adds a charm to speech, 
so elegance of materials, writing, and general appear- 
ance enhances the pleasure bestowed by a letter." 

At the conclusion of these suggestions each pupil 
may be requested to write, within the coming week, 
a letter directed to the teacher, using one of the 
forms heretofore given, and these several letters 
should form the subject of the next lesson. 

I have given a glimpse of the subject of letter- 
writing in hope that teachers and pupils may be led, 
thereby, to follow it further. Several interesting 
features connected with the subject ot correspond- 
ence have not been named, among which I merely 
mention notes of ceremony and compliment, and 
cards of invitation. I shall now offer a few sugges- 
tions on the subject of book-keeping. 

That all young people should receive, in school, 
at least sufficient instructions on the subject of book- 
keeping to enal)le each (Mie to keep his own accounts. 



LETTER- WKITING AND BOOK-KEEPIXG. 383 

no fair-minded person will deny. The want of this 
knowledge has produced dissensions in communities 
and furnished work for the courts. 

It is not my purpose to discuss book-keeping in its 
broadest sense, but rather to suggest the method by 
which teachers may give their pupils a practical 
knowledge of this subject without interfering with 
other studies. Every thoughtful teacher is aware 
that there are times Avhen pupils become tired of the 
regular recitations, — times when it is better to 
depart a little from the daily programme. Such 
occasions may be used by the skilful teacher in 
presenting practical lessons in the work of keeping 
accounts. 

Suppose, as the first lesson, each pupil is permitted 
to open an account with his teacher. The teacher 
may present upon the blackboard the form of keep- 
mg accounts in a ledger, by single entry, and each 
pupil may rule a sheet of paper for the pur[)ose. 
The teacher may then w^rite upon the board the 
names and number of the several articles Avhich he 
wishes to purchase of each pupil, and the names 
and number of the several articles which he wishes 
to sell to each pupil, and the price of each 
article. Each pupil may copy the charges and 
credits and carry out the amounts. The teacher 
may then call for settlement in order to see how his 
account stands with each pupil. Such a lesson will, 
to children, appear to be almost a reality, and they 
will exercise great care in their calculations. After 



384 GRADUATING SYSTEM FOR COUNTRY SCHOOLS. 

each pupil states how his account stands, the several 
sheets may be handed to the teacher for inspection 
and criticism. 

At another time the teacher may present the 
method of keeping the day-book ; at another the 
method of posting the book, and at another time the 
mode of properly indexing the ledger. Bhuik books 
vvdth paper backs may be procured at very little 
cost, and used by the pupils as though they were 
actively engaged in business. Pupils may, by this 
method, under the training of a skilful teacher, soon 
gain a practical knowledge of the subject of single- 
entry book-keeping. 

Teachers may, by a like method, give their pupils 
a fair knowledge of the forms of Avritten instruments 
in business, such as receipts, promissory-notes, 
agreements, deeds, and wills. 

The common people cannot well afford to send 
their children away from home to commercial col- 
leges, therefore the country school should furnish a 
fair business education. 



LECTURE XXX. 

HINTS UPON GRADING COUNTRY SCHOOLS. 

In offering suggestions upon the subject of grading 
country schools, I shall not attempt to present a 
stereotyped form, suitable for all the States, but 
rather to point out a flexible method by which all 
schools may be graded. 

As the method of gaining knowledge in infancy 
and the method of o^ainino- knowledge in mature 
manhood ought to be one and the same, so the method 
of grading colleges and country schools ought to be 
alike. The country school is, indeed, sometimes 
called the "People's College." In a college the 
course of study is prescribed by officials, and the 
classification of pupils is made and carried out by 
instructors. While the courses of study in various 
colleges may be somewhat simihir, and the methods 
of grading in all of them may be nearly alike, yet 
this work, in each one, is performed by its own 
officers and teachers. Neither Harvard nor Yale 
would undertake to prescribe a curriculum for the 
Virginia University, or insist upon indicating a speci- 
fied method of grading its classes. Each school 
maintains its own individuality. 



386 GRADUATING SYSTEM FOR COUNTRY SCHOOLS. 

If we wish to make all the countrj^ schools of a 
State as one working school, then there should be 
a uniform course of study and sj'stem of grading in 
all the country schools of the State. And this is the 
plan that is now finding favor in the eyes of the fore- 
most educators. 

The National Educational Association, at its meet- 
ing in Philadel[)hia, July 31, 1879, passed a resolu- 
tion calling the attention of State superintendents of 
public instruction throughout the United States to 
the propriety of adopting a graduating system for 
country schools, since which time initiatory steps have 
been taken in several States for the grading of coun- 
try schools. The first outline of a graded course for 
country schools, published after the passage of the 
above resolution, was prepared for the schools of the 
State of Tennessee, and appeared in the Juno num- 
ber, 1880, of the "American Journal of Education," 
St. Louis. This outline, or circular, which was fur- 
nished by Hon. Leon. Trousdale, State superintend- 
ent of Tennessee, provides not only for the grading 
of country schools, but for the graduatiin of pupils 
who satisfactorily complete the common school course 
of study. This outline is too long to be here pre- 
sented in full, but I ofl<er Superintendent Trousdale's 
introduction to this circular, which is entitled" Graded 
Course of Study for Country Schools." He says : 
"What the schools desire and need is a plan, — 
a system, a model, a guide-post. This w^e now 
endeavor to supply in the following w^ell-matured 



HINTS UPON GRADING COUNTRY SCHOOLS. 387 

schedule, which has been prepared by Professor S. 
Y. Caldwell, supermtendent of the Nashville public 
schools, after many earnest and anxious conferences 
and comparisons of views with myself. It has ])een 
my earnest desire, for the last four ^ears, to present 
such a working plan for the schools, and the one here 
presented seems to be sufficiently practical to adapt 
itself to the scope and genius of every teacher wdio 
is sufficiently interested and earnestly alive to its 
great utility, and to the new and progressive life it 
will infuse into our public school system. It furnishes 
a sliding scale, so to speak, of sufficient margin for 
practical working, which promises to adapt it to the 
diversified circumstances and attainments of the pupils 
in all the schools, while there is definiteness and sys- 
tem enough to supply a standard by which each 
teacher may be guided while giving scope to his 
peculiar ingenuity, tact, and common-sense. The 
general qualifications of the teacher himself, his al)il- 
ity, skill, and judgment, must mainly be relied on to 
execute successfully the design. These suggestions 
are especially commended to those who agree to in- 
troduce the proposed plan of gr;iding and granting 
certificates to those wdio complete the course. It is 
suggested that the studies authorized to be taught in 
public schools as found in the school law, be arranged 
under the following heads." 

(Then follows a carefully prepared course, in the 
common branches, arranged after the order of a col- 
lege curriculum.) 



388 GRADUATING SYSTEM FOR COUNTRY SCHOOLS. 

The editor of the '^ American Journal of Educa- 
tion," St. Louis, in the numl)er from which the fore- 
going extract is taken, says : — ■ 

'^ The great want constantly felt in country 
schools, and which has heretofore been regarded as 
most difBcult of attainment, indeed, which has not 
yet met with an accepted solution in any of the 
States, is the regular gradation of the course estab- 
lished by law for our pu])lic schools, so as to admit 
of flexibility and margin enough to bring within the 
limits of classification rural schools of pupils of 
uneven attainments. That exact grading cannot be 
attained in small schools, where the terms are short 
and attendance irregular, seems to be the greatest 
difficulty to be surmounted. This can only be done 
by allowing a large margin in the possible adjust- 
ment of the grades, by permitting pupils of unequal 
attainments in the different branches to alternate 
their studies in different grades until they have 
brought up their attainments to an even standard. 

" The overwhelming importance of making a begin- 
ning in this direction justifies the essay Ave publish 
in this number of the 'Journal,' by Hon. Leon. Trous- 
dale, State superintendent of public schools in 
Tennessee, who has, with the assistance of a number 
of the leading educators of the State, wrought out a 
graded system (or the country schools which is so 
suggestive and valuable that our teachers in all the 
States will find it of great value. 

" There may be obstacles which will confront the 



HIXTS UPON GRADING COUNTRY SCHOOLS. 389 

teacher in maintaining a systematic grading, partial 
and disjointed though it may be, yet he should per- 
severe in an effort so well worthy of a triumph, and 
which will render his work so much more satisfoctory 
and fruitful of good results. He should meet each 
of these obstacles Avith tact, patience, and concilia- 
tory firmness, bringing to bear upon it his knowledge 
of human nature, acquired training, and, above all, 
common-sense. But he should never despair, and 
should constantly persevere in the effort to system- 
atize the course of study prescribed by law into a 
well-rounded and successive development of mental 
training and knowledge. He may not immediately 
succeed in a thorough grading of his whole school, 
buf he may approximate so near to this standard that 
the greater number of his pupils shall be drawn into 
the plan at once, and those who are left strasfirlinof 
in a vain and obstinate effort to direct their own 
studies and pursue their own undigested schemes, 
will, after a while, fall into line, and the final result 
will justify the task he has proposed to accomplish." 
A movement somewhat similar to that in Tennes- 
see has recently been made in several other States. 
I find in a late issue of the " Educational Weekly," 
Chicago, an official circular from the State superin- 
tendent of Illinois, accompanied by a carefully 
graded course of study for the country schools of the 
State. This circular shows how the subject of grad- 
ing country schools was introduced in that State, and 
how thoroughly the work is to bo carried out, so 1 



390 GRADUATING SYSTEM FOR COUNTRY SCHOOLS. 

present it here, hoping that teachers and school 
officers in other States uiay be induced thereby to do 
likewise. 

ILLINOIS CIRCULAK 15. 

OUTLINE OF STUDY FOR THE UNGRADED SCHOOLS OF 
ILLINOIS. 

Department of Public Instruction, 

Springfield, III., Sept. 1, 18S0. 
The subject of a course of study for the ungraded schools 
of this State was discussed at the meeting of the County 
Superintendents' Association of Illinois, held at Blooming- 
ton, December, 1879. After the discussion, a committee 
was appointed to prepare an outline of such a course of 
study, and the State superintendent was requested to have it 
printed, when prepared, and to send a copy of it through the 
county superintendents to the teacher and board of school 
directors of each ungraded school in the State. 

The committee have prepared the following outline of 
study. This outline is earnestly commended to county super- 
intendents, school directors and teachers, in the belief that 
it will contribute to the usefulness and efficiency of the 
ungraded schools of the State. 

James P. Slade, 
Superintendent of Public Instruction. 

Then follows a graded course of study, si^^ned by 
James P. Slade, Albert G. Lane, and Mary L. Car- 
penter, committee. This course is somewhat similar 
to, but in some respects different from, the course 
prescribed for the schools of Tennessee, 

I am in possession of a circular dated "River 
Falls, Pierce County, Wisconsin, July 31, 1880," 



IJIXTS UPON GRADING COUNTRY SCHOOLS. 391 

issued by James T. McCleary, county superintendent, 
which indicates that the subject of grading country 
schools is receiving careful attention ' in the State of 
Wisconsin. I quote the following items from the 
foregoing circular : — 

'To all Friends of the Common Schools : — 

" Having felt, as a teacher, the need of some such 
arrangement, we have spent consideral)le time and 
thought in mapping out, for the common schools (if 
Pierce County, the following course of study. It is 
based upon the course for the ungraded schools of 
Wisconsin, outlined by a committee from the State 
Teachers' Association, headed by our faithful and 
efficient State superintendent. We propose to adapt 
to the ungraded schools a S3^stem that has long been 
in successful operation in schools of higher grade, the 
two main features of the system being: 1. A defi- 
nite course of study; 2. An honorable graduation 
of those wdio complete the course. Those pupils in 
the several schools of a town (township), who are 
recommended for graduation by their respective teach- 
ers, are to be examined by the county superintend- 
ent, assisted by two competent persons. To those 
found qualified, the common school diploma will be 
granted. An examination will take place annually 
in each town, except that in certain cases the pupils 
from two towns may be examined together. We 
offer the following reasons for adopting the course 
of study and graduation plan : — 



392 GRADUATING SYSTEM FOR COUNTRY SCHOOLS. 

" 1 . The course contains such studies as the pupils 
should pursue. 

"2. There 'being an objective point, pupils will 
work more faithfully, attend more regularly, and 
remain longer in school than they would otherwise 
do. 

" 3. The schools can be governed more easily and 
by better means. 

" 4. The tendency will be to make the teacher's 
tenure of position more certain and lasting, and thus 
to induce persons of ability to remain in the profes- 
sion. 

"5. A better standard of success will be estab- 
lished. 

" 6 . Better work can be done at teachers' meet- 
ings. 

"7. We shall be preparing to take advantage of 
the high-school law. 

" 8. Pupils moving from one place in the county 
to another will 'fit into' the new school." 

In several States the work of grading country 
schools has been carried on by counties working 
singly and separately. This method is good as far 
as it goes, but it is fragmentary, and slow to reach 
all the counties of the State. The method adopted 
in Tennessee, Illinois, and Wisconsin makes the 
work of grading imiform throughout the State. 

The subject of grading country schools should be 
discussed in every State association and in every 
county institute, and a committee, consisting of the 



HINTS UPON GRADING COUNTRY SCHOOLS. 393 

foremost educators in each, should be appointed to 
further consider and report upon this subject. To 
aid them in their Avork these committees should pro- 
cure from State superintendents where gradation 
has been adopted, copies of the several graded courses 
of study for country schools. The reports of these 
committees will give teachers the best light that can 
be obtained, and will be likely to lead them to favor 
the universal adoption of the graded system in coun- 
try schools. 

Hon. ^y. K. Pendleton, State superintendent of 
West Virginia, occupies high ground upon the sub- 
ject of grading country schools. In his official report 
to the State Legislature, under the head of '* Graded 
Primary Instruction," he says : — 

" There ought to be a beginning, a regular order 
of progress, and an end to the primary course of 
instruction. This has been felt by some of our best 
county superintendents, and Superintendent Wade, 
of Monongalia County, has succeeded in introducing 
a method in the schools of his county that has. w^orked 
with admirable success. But so long as it is left to 
each teacher to do as he lists Avith respect to the 
orcfanization and conduct of school work, we can have 
but little system or uniformity in it. I suggest that 
authority be given to prescribe a regular course of 
primary instruction, to be generally followed in the 
schools, with provision for the examination and 
graduation of all pupils who satisfactorily complete 
it." 



394 GRADUATING SYSTEM FOR COUNTRY SCHOOLS. 

It requires no prophetic eye to see that the country 
schools of the several States are yet to be as uni- 
versally graded as colleges and universities. The 
importance of this gradation is clearly stated by 
Superintendent Parish, of New Haven, Conn., in the 
following paragraph, which I copy from the ^* National 
Journal of Education," Boston : — 

"Nothing, perhaps, contributes more effectually to 
secure unity of purpose and action to the administra- 
tion of our school system, than the thorough grada- 
tion of studies and careful classification of pupils 
according to capacity. Let it not be inferred, how- 
ever, that there is, necessarily, w^hat is often charged 
upon public schools when working systematically, 
anything like ' machine work,' to the exclusion or 
hindrance of the mental culture of the pupils. Con- 
cert of action is appropriate in the school-room as 
elsewhere, when considerable numbers are to be 
treated, both as a physical and mental drill ; and 
experience has proved that it is beneficial to the 
bodies and minds of the pupils. Naturally dull minds 
are specially benefited l)y acting with others quicker 
than themselves, stimulated by the combined in- 
fluence of compulsion aud interest in a pleasurable 



LECTURE XXXI. 



Government, manners, and morals are so near 
akin that I shall not try to separate them. Where 
manners and morals are bad, good government is 
unattainable ; but where manners and morals are 
good, government will take care of itself. 

I have heretofore, at various times, spoken of the 
power of motives in maintaining order ; I shall now 
speak of penalties, and the purposes for which they 
should or should not be used. I may as well begin 
with the use of the rod. 

The clear-headed educators of to-day, with few 
exceptions, agree that the use of the rod in the school- 
room, as in a well-regulated family, should generally 
be permitted but seldom practised. In case of a 
downright rebellion in the family the rod may be 
necessary, but a wise parent never uses it for the 
purpose of producing mental or moral growth. We 
have but to open our eyes in order to see that the 
best forms of family government are neither estab- 
lished nor maintained by the frequent use of the rod. 

The school is the supplement to the family, and 



396 GRADUATING SYSTEM FOR COUNTRY SCHOOLS. 

what is true of the one is true of the other. The 
rod, in cases of emergency, may be applied in the 
government of pupils, but it should never be used 
as an incentive to study. Close observation vviil 
convince any sensible teacher or parent that lessons 
learned under the fear of the lash, like food forced 
upon the stomach, will be, by nature's law, thrown 
off imdigested. This driving method cannot be long 
continued without producing mental dyspepsia. Men- 
tal dyspeptics may be seen all over the land. 

\A'hat has been said of the rod, is in some degree 
applicable to all school-room penalties. They should 
be used only in the government of the school. The 
rod, I ma}^ further say, should be placed at the far 
end of the list of penalities. Even in the government 
of pupils penalties should be used sparingly, and the 
teacher who is not sufficiently skilful to govern with- 
out frequently resorting to penalties, ought to seek 
some other employment. 

But some one may here say, if the teacher cannot 
compel his pupils to study, by what method can he 
induce them to do so? I answer this question by 
quoting the language of Herbert Spencer. In his 
book entitled "Education," he says : — 

" The direct gratification consequent on activity, 
is the normal stimulus [to the acquisition of knowl- 
edge], and under good management the only needful 
stimulus. When w^e are obliged to fall back upon 
some other, we must take the fact as evidence that 
we are on the wrong track. Experience is daily 



SCHOOL GOVERIOIENT, MANNERS, AND MORALS. 397 

showing with greater clearness that there is always 
a method to be found productive of interest, — even 
of delight; and it ever turns out that this is the 
method proved by all other tests to be the right 
one." 

I come now to consider the subject of manners and 
morals. Of the importance of these I scarcely need 
speak. The State provides a system of schools for 
the purpose of so training its youths that they may 
become good citizens. Now if good manners and 
morals are as essential to the citizen as good scholar- 
ship is, then the former should be as carefully taught 
as the latter. That this is seldom done is evident 
to every careful observer. Superintendent W. F. 
Phelps, Winona, Minn., says: — 

" The experience of each day in the management 
of our public schools serves only to deepen the con- 
viction that their efficiency is crippled and their high- 
est usefulness greatly restrained by their omission 
to give proper attention to the morals, manners, and 
general behavior of their pupils. The good name 
of the schools, the welfare of the children, and the 
good order of the community alike demand that this 
department of instruction should be elevated to its 
full rank in the administration of the system. We 
hear much said about the lack of moral instiuction 
in our schools, and the same tongues wax eloquent 
frequently in their glorification of so-called ' scholar- 
ship ' as the chief end of education, without offering 
a single practical suggestion as to how we are to teach 



398 GRADUATIXG SYSTEM FOR COUNTRY SCHOOLS. 

morals and manners. When the boast is made that 
all the elements of excellence except scholarship have 
been excluded from the estimate of our school work, 
it is time for all thoughtful men to pause and reflect. 
Scholarship, when genuine, is good; but character 
is better. No school ever yet made a great scholar. 
That is the work of a lifetime of self-application. 
But schools can do much toward laying the founda- 
tions of a noble, useful, virtuous character, and that 
should be their supreme aim." 

Prof. B. F. Shaub, president of the Pennsylvania 
State Teachers' Association, says : — 

"The moral nature should receive more culture 
in the schools than it generally does; and just in 
proportion as parents are careless in this particular 
should the schools be more careful. Is it safe to 
leave moral culture to chance? Would it not be 
much less dangerous to leave the culture of the in- 
tellect to chance ? Perhaps the best way to give this 
culture is to do so informally, but persistently and 
continuously, at every suitable opportunity. In 
every school, from the highest to the lowest, in every 
association of teachers, this subject should receive 
emphatic recognition, and should be lifted up into 
that prominence which its supreme importance de- 
mands.'* 

The following editorial, from " Barnes' Educational 
Monthly," New York, is so appropriate that I present 
it for the benefit of the boys in our public schools : — 

"A philosopher has said that true education for 



I 



SCHOOL GOVERNMENT, MANNEES, AND MORALS. 399 

boys is to ^ teach them what they ought to know when 
the}^ become men.' What is it they ought to know 
then? Firsts To be true, to be genuine. No educa- 
tion is worth anything that does not inchidc this. A 
man had better not know how to read, — he had 
better never learn a letter in the alphabet, and be 
true and genuine in intention, in action, — rather than 
being learned in all sciences and all languages, to be 
at the same time false in heart and counterfeit in 
life. Above all things teach the boy that truth is 
more than culture, more than earthly power or posi- 
tion. Second, To be pure in thought, language, and 
life, — pure in mind and body. An impure man, 
young or old, poisoning the society where he moves 
with smutty stories and impure examples, is a moral 
ulcer, a plague spot, a leper, who ought to be treated 
as the lepers of old, who were banished from society 
and compelled to cry ' unclean,' as a warning to save 
others from the pestilence. Third, To be unselfish, 
to care for the comforts and feelings of others ; to be 
polite, to be genuine, noble, and manly. This will 
include a genuine reverence for the aged, and things 
sacred. Fourth, To be selfrreliant and self-helpful, 
even from early childhood, — to be industrious always, 
and self-supporting, at the earliest proper age. Teach 
them that all honest work is honorable, and that an 
idle, useless life of dependence on others is disgraceful. 
When a boy has learned these four things, — when he 
has made these ideas a part (;f his being, — however 
young he may be, however poor, or however rich, 



400 GRADUATING SYSTEM FOR COUNTRY SCHOOLS. 

he has learned some of the most important things he 
oujrht to know when he becomes a man." 

But I am asked what qualifications the teacher 
needs in order to fit him for giving instructions in 
manners and morals. I answer 1)y quoting the lan- 
guage of Rev. A. D. Mayo, associate editor of the 
"New England Journal of Education," Boston. In 
his address before the National Educational Associa- 
tion, in 1880, Mr. Mayo said : — 

" The true teacher is th« central object in all moral 
instruction. Unless he is the incarnation of all his 
pupils should be, it will be in vain that he attempts 
to give formal instruction in morality. Every school 
is really a committee of inve^tigation of the teacher, 
and every instructor who combines high character 
and teaching ability cannot fail to be a powerful 
spiritual force in the school-room. The people must 
insist that only teachers of the most positive moral 
character shall stand before the children. In pro- 
portion as the level of moral power in the teacher 
can be raised, will character be shaped in the school- 
room." 

Asrain, I am asked to name the text-book from 
which the teacher may draw lessons in morals. I 
answer, there is but one standard work on this sub- 
ject, and that is the Bible. 

I am aware that in some places the Bible is, by 
law, excluded from the school. The inconsistency 
of such legislation is seen in the fact that the same 
law which excludes the Bible from the youth in the 



SCHOOL GOVERNMENT, MANNERS, AND MORALS. 401 

school recognizes it as the seal of the citizen's oath 
before the court. 

The school should be in no sense sectarian. But 
the use of the Bible in the school-room need no more 
constitute a sectarian school than the use of the Bible 
in the court-room constitutes a sectarian court. And 
this view of the subject has been sustained by the 
Supreme Court in several States. I offer as an 
example the late decision of the Supreme Court of 
Illinois, namely: "A few minutes' reading of the 
Bible each morning in a public school is not secta- 
rian religious instruction." 

Perhaps it is not best to prescribe a formal reading 
from the Scriptures each day in the school-room. Let 
the Bible be laid upon the teacher's desk by the side 
of the dictionary, to be used by the discreet teacher, 
just as the dictionary is used, — whenever it is needed. 
It should be used, mainly, as an aid in discipline and 
character training, and no intelligent parent can 
ol^ject to having his child bear in its character and 
conduct the seal of the Ten Commandments, the 
Sermon on the Mount, the Lord's Prayer, and the 
Golden Rule. 

The leading educational journals of the land 
heartily favor the Bible in the public schools. As an 
index to their sentiment, I quote from the editorial 
columns of the two leading weekly journals. The 
"Educational Weekly," Chicago, says : — 

" We believ'C that the Bil)le should be retained in 
the schools as the basis of moral instruction, and that 

26 



402 GRADUATING SYSTEM FOR COUNTRY SCHOOLS. 

cei-tain portions of it, such tis the Ten Commandments, 
the Lord's Prayer, and the Sermon on the Mount, 
should be made famihar to all pupils. The Bible is 
used as a sanction to oaths in the courts, and all 
citizens should be educated to reverence it. The 
schools should not undertake, of course, to expound 
its theology." 

The "National Journal of Education," Boston, 
says : — 

" The State of Massachusetts, in providing: for 
instruction in morals and piety, and the reading of 
the Bible in school, expressly disclaims all indorse- 
ment of anybody's theory of inspiration, philosophy 
of morals, or religious creed. It forbids all teachers 
from entering on this debatable ground, and simply 
requires such instruction in morals and religion as 
every citizen fit to be outside of the State prison 
must acknowledge to be necessary, and lays the 
Bible, in any good version, on the teacher's desk as 
the best known, most honored, and least objectional 
handbook of youthful discipline. Ina"Bmuch as tlie 
State builds its whole structure of criminal legislation 
on the foundations of that Christian morality common 
to all civilized lands, and punishes the citizen even 
with death for transgression of the moral law, it is 
difficult to see how religious liberty is assailed by 
instructing school-children in the principles of good 
morals and unsectarian religion, and reading the Ten 
Commandments, Beatitudes, and the Sermon on the 
Mount as a help in such discipline. We should say 



SCHOOL GOVERNMENT, MANNERS, ANf) MORALS. 403 

ii State that was so dainty that it could not enforce 
the instruction of fundamental Christian morals in 
its common schools was a State in the air. To build 
a republic on the everlasting corner-stone of the 
Christian morality, to iiicorporate the very soul of 
the Christian idea of man, his rights and duties, in 
constitution and law, and to enforce that morality, 
through precept and discipline, in public schools, is 
neither to establish a State religion, to unite Church 
and State, nor to trench on any freedom of a parent 
except the liberty to make a criminal of his child. 
The American peoi)le regard religion, morality, and 
the Bible as the great common basis of American 
society on which our whole civil, social, ecclesiastical, 
and educational fabric is built ; without which such 
a nation as this Republic would be simply impossible. 
The vast majority of the American people who sup- 
port the common school believe in the absolute 
necessity of planting the common Christian morality 
in the very heart of its discipline and instruction." 



LECTUKE XXXII. 

INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION IN COUNTRY SCHOOLS. 

It is universally conceded that the country school 
ought to furnish an education extending beyond the 
school-room to the family, the farm, and the work- 
shop ; but how such an education can best be given 
is a question which is still unsettled even among the 
foremost thinkers. 

In many of the great cities of Europe, and in some 
of the cities of the United States, workshops are 
attached to school buildings, and pupils are trained 
in various trades. It is evident, however, that the 
erection of workshops in connection with country 
school-houses is not feasible. 

■ Ahhough the country school, as it seems to me, 
cannot consistently undertake to train young people 
in various kinds of work, it can do that which is 
evidently of equal importance ; it can inspire the 
children with a love for the callings which they are 
likely to pursue in later life. Most of the girls in 
our country schools are to be wives and house- 
keepers, and most of the boys are to be husbands 
and farmers, or mechanics, and they should be 



IXDUSTPJAL EDUCATION IN COUNTRY SCHOOLS. 405 

taught not only that labor is honorable, but that 
there is no nobler calling anywhere than that of the 
accomplished housekeeper, the complete f^irmer, or 
the finished mechanic. They should be taught that 
these are the most independent pursuits, and that 
they may be made not only very profitable, but also 
very pleasurable. They should be taught that to be 
ignorant of work is Avorse than to be ignorant of 
books ; that to refuse to help their parents is worse 
than to fail in their recitations ; and that to be a poor 
housekeeper, farmer, or mechanic is a greater mis- 
fortune than to be otherwise poorly educated. 

The schools are sometimes charoed with creatine^ 
a sentiment unfavorable to industry. We have but 
to open our eyes, however, to see that w^hercver the 
schools are most flourishing the several industries 
are most prosperous. It is true that many of the 
schools have devoted themselves almost entirely to 
the cultivation of the brain, and have failed to create 
any sentiment at all upon the subject of industry. 
This is a very unfortunate omission, because a senti- 
ment in favor of educating the hand is as important 
as a sentiment in favor of educating the head. 

Prof. W. M. Barbour, of Yale College and Sem- 
inary, says, " Our seminaries and colleges are suffer- 
inir from conofestion of the brain ; too much thouoht 
and too little putting it into practice. We need to 
diffuse the blood from the head into the extremities." 
This complaint of our seminaries and colleges, I am 
sorry to say, has been contracted in some of our 
country schools. 



406 GRADUATING SYSTEM FOR COUNTRY SCHOOLS. 

Pupils ill country schools should be taught that one 
object in giving them an education is to enable the 
bo3's to become better farmers and mechanics than 
their fathers, and to enable the girls to become 
better cooks and housekeepers than their mothers. 
Teachers should point out methods by which chil- 
dren may hope to excel their parents in whatever 
pursuits they enter in life. For a single illustra- 
tion, I may say that the teacher shtaild impress upon 
his pupils the fact that if they desire to excel their 
parents in ability to do work, either of the hand or 
bi-ain, they ought to have better health than their 
Others and mothers have had. This they may hope 
to enjoy by giving closer attention than their 
parents have given to the subject of comforta])le 
clothing, well-prepared food, eaten at regular hours, 
government of the appetite and temper, healthful 
situations for houses, thorough ventilation of sleep- 
ing apartments, and many other matters pertaining 
to the laws of life. 

Pupils should be taught to use neither intoxicat- 
ing liquors nor tobacco, but to save their earnings, 
spending money only for such things as are needful. 
They should be encouraged to study and use labor- 
saving machinery, and to employ some of the time 
so saved in the cultivation of their minds and in the 
ornamentation of their homes. 

Boys should be taught that the work of enriching 
the soil, improving stock, and producing the l)est 
crrades of grain and grass, requires a working brain 



INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION IN COUNTRY SCHOOLS 407 

as well as a willing hand. They should be taught 
that the mechanic needs a refined taste as well as a 
trained hand, so that his work may embody beauty of 
form and elegance of finish. 

Girls should be taught that a complete knowledge 
of housekeeping, from the kitchen to the parlor, is 
the finest art, — an art which requires not only in- 
dustry and skill, but intelligence and culture. 

If all teachers of country schools will labor, from 
this time forth, to create in the minds of their pupils 
a love for the several callings which they are likely 
to pursue in later life, the future homes of the Amer- 
ican people will be brighter, neater, healthier, and 
happier. 



LECTURE XXXIII. 

NECESSITY FOR SCHOOL SUPERVISION. 

The need of enlightened supervision in mechanical 
employments, in business, and in government is 
everywhere acknowledged to be absolutely essential. 
This is proven hy the fact that every factory has its 
foreman, every railroad has its president, and every 
nation has its ruler. In systems of education, 
supervision is believed to be essential to success 
in every department except in the ungraded pri- 
mary school. This is proven by the fact that every 
college has its president and every high school 
has its principal. The necessity for supervision in 
ungraded country schools has never been fully set- 
tled in the minds of the masses of the American 
people. This is proven by the fact that several 
States, after testing such supervision for a while, 
have virtually destroyed it. 

In attempting to account for the fact that the 
masses are not fully satisfied of the necessity -for 
supervision in ungraded country schools, some writers 
have simply declared that the people are blind to 
their own interests. But if the people are blind to 



NECESSITY FOR SCHOOL SUPERVISION. 409 

their interests in matters pertaining to primary edu- 
cation, why, I ask, do they see in matters per- 
taining to mechanical employments and to higher 
education? Let us look at this question, and see if 
we can find out why some persons favor supervision 
everywhere else, but are not satisfied of its utility in 
ungraded schools. 

In every work where large numbers of men and 
women are employed, except in ungraded schools, 
there is a definite work for the superintendent to do, 
— a work that all interested persons can see. The 
foreuian of a factory is required not merely to keep 
his eye on the operatives, and to report at stated 
periods how busy they have been, but he is required 
to inform the stockholders how many kegs of nails 
have been made, how many tons of metal have been 
moulded, or how many yards of fabric have been 
woven, in a given time, and the amount and condition 
of unfinished material still on hand. 

If we examine carefully the annual catalogue of 
any school of high order, we find, that in its make-up 
it is near akin to the annual report of the factory 
manager. It gives the names of graduates and the 
date of graduation. It presents, also, the names of 
all pupils who are still in school, and indicates the 
time in which each is expected to complete the course 
of stud}^ 

From the foregoing consideration of this subject, I 
believe it is safe to say that supervision is acknowl- 
edged to be essential wherever several persons are 



410 GRADUATING SYSTEM FOR COUNTRY SCHOOLS. 

employed in any work which ought to l)e completed 
in a given time. As there is no method in ungraded 
country schools by which the superintendent can 
ascertain how many pupils have actually completed 
the common school course of study w^ithin the year, 
or what progress pupils have made, the necessity for 
his office is not so easily seen as that of the foreman of 
a factory or the president of a university. Adopt in 
any factory the loose methods of ungraded schools, 
and its stock would fall at least fifty per cent. Su- 
pervision in such a factory would still be essential, but 
it would be by many considered "simply an expense 
without profit, just as it now is by many in ungraded 
schools. 

The country school ought not to be an exception to 
well-established laws of industry and business. It 
ought to be in harmony with all higher schools. 
The same educational method should prevail every- 
where from the primary school to the university. 
Every step taken in the direction of gradation and 
graduation in country schools gives the superintend- 
ent a more definite work to do, and shows the 
people, in a clearer light, the necessity for school 
supervision. 



LECTURE XXXiy. 

WOMEN AS TEACHERS AND SCHOOL OEFICEES. 

** More human, more divine than we — 
In truth, half human, half divine — 
Is woman." 

More than one half of the public schools of the 
States and Territories are taught by women, and 
fifteen States have enacted laws makinof women eli- 
gible to school ofKces. There is, however, in many 
places a degree of prejudice against women, even 
as teachers. The consideration of this subject is, 
therefore, a matter of no small importance. 

In the selection of teachers and school officers, we 
ought not to close our eyes to the hints which Nature 
gives us ; and as the father and mother are Nature's 
chosen agents for the management of the home, it 
would seem to be natural for both sexes to take part 
in the manasrement of the school. And this is the 
method that is now finding favor in several States. 

School boards may be easily made up of both men 
and women, and schools requiring more than one 
teacher may employ both male and female ; but many 
of the offices reqviire but one person, and most of the 
country schools employ but one teacher, so we are 



412 GRADUATING SYSTEM FOR COUNTRY SCHOOLS. 



often called upon to choose between man's superior 
strength and woman's superior culture. 

In order that we may see and study the prefer- 
ences given to one or the other of the sexes, in the 
numbers employed and salaries paid, in each of the 
several States and Territories, I present the follow- 
ing table, taken from the last report of the Commis- 
sioner of Education at Washinsfton : — 

o 
TABLE. 

Summary of the number of teachers emploijed in the public schools^ 
and the average salary of teachers per month, in the respective 
States and Territories. 



States and Territories. 



Alabama. . . 
Arliansas .. 
California .. 
Colorado. . . 
Connecticut 
Delaware . . 
Florida .... 
Georgia. . . . 

Illinois 

Indiana . . . . 

Iowa 

Kansas 

Kentucky .. 
Louisiana .. 

Maine 

Maryland . . 



Number of 
tcacbers em- 
ployed in pub- 
lic schools. 



Male. Female. 



1,184 

183 

753 

270 

375 

3,267 

9,162 

8,109 

7,348 

2,772 

1,600 

767 

2,253 

1,243 



(4,145) 

187 
1,983 



250 

2,354 

231 

182 

1,633 

12,836 

6,465 

12,518 

3,279 

2,700 

740 

4,543 

1,663 



Average salary 

of teachers per 

month. 



Male. Female. 



$22 65 
50 00 
83 78 
56 10 
64 55 
(30 



46 17 


61 27 


34 88 


33 19 


40 00 


45 00 


41 84 


4195 



$22 65 
40 00 
69 68 
51 45 
36 20 

75) 



32 23 
39 20' 

28 69 

29 82 
35 00 
35 00 
25 64 
41 95 



WOMEN AS TEACHERS AND SCHOOL OFFICERS. 413 
TABLE. — Continued. 



States and Territories. 



Massachusetts... 

Michigan 

Minnesota 

Mississippi 

Missouri 

Nebraska 

Nevada 

New Hampshire 

New Jersey 

New York 

North Carolina.. 

Ohio 

Oregon 

Pennsylvania . . . 
Rhode Island . . . 
South Carolina.. 

Tennessee 

Texas 

Vermont 

Virginia 

West Virginia . . 
Wisconsin 



Total number of teachers in States. 



Arizona 

Dakota 

District of Columbia 
Idaho 



Number of 
teachers em- 
ployed in pub- 
lic schools. 



Male. Female. 



1,118 
3,781 
1,711 

(4, 

5,904 

1,571 

36 

591 

954 

7,850 

1,728 

10,855 

720 

9,096 

294 

1,639 

3,741 

(3, 

720 

2,967 

2,797 

(9, 



7,390 

9,220 

3,031 

125) 

3,747 

2,158 

77 

2,955 

2,356 

22,311 

654 

12,148 

502 

11,556 

987 

1,035 

1,260 

100) 

3,608 

1,773 

896 

858) 



(257,454) 



100 
31 



25 
154 

299 



Average salary 

of teacheis per 

month. 



Male. Female. 



$75 64 
42 54 
36 75 
29 191 



$33 04 

27 45 

28 31 

29 19| 



(30 00) 



35 46 


112 63 


38 37 


63 78 


30 00 


50 00 


37 38 


80 69 


28 32 


28 53 



31 80 
85 20 
24 71 
37 04 

30 00 

35 00 

32 30 
45 91 
26 87 
28 53 



(53 


00) 


34 44 


21 60 


33 10 


27 37 


34 89 


32 09 


40 48 


26 35 



$100 00 $50 00 



96 17 



71 21 



41 i GRADUATING SYSTEM FOR COUNTRY SCHOOLS. 

The foregoing table, when studied in connection 
with the diagram giving the attendance in the sev- 
eral States, seems to indicate that women, as teach- 
ers, are superior to men in securing a higher per 
cent of attendance. In order to make the matter more 
clear, I will give some ilhistrations of what I mean. 

Let us take the diagram which I presented in my 
talk upon " Methods for Securing Attendance " (page 
310). V^'e find that the State of Massachusetts 
stands highest upon the diagram in the average per 
cent of attendance of its school population. From 
the figures which we find in the table just presented,, 
it appears that Massachusetts also stands highest in 
the per cent of women it employs as teachers. That 
is to say, Massachusetts has an average attendance 
of seventy-four per cent of its entire school popu- 
lation, and eighty-seven per cent of its teachers are 
women. Next to Massachusetts, on the diagram, 
stands the State of New Hampshire, with an average 
attendance of sixty-five per cent ; and it also stands 
next on the table, — eighty-five per cent of its 
teachers are women. If we reverse the order, and 
take the lowest State on the diagram, — Arkansas, 
with only sixteen per cent of its school popu'ation on 
the roll, and no mention made of its average attend- 
ance, — we find that only twenty-three per cent of 
its teachers are women. 

A careful examination of this diagram and table 
will convince any one that, as a rule, to which there 
are some exceptions, States employing a large per 



WOMEN AS TEACHERS AND SCHOOL OFFICERS. 415 

cent of women as teachers, have a high per cent of 
attendance of pupils ; and States employing a small 
per cent of women as teachers, have a low per cent 
of attendance of pupils. 

If it could be proven that a high average attend- 
ance is owins: altoi^rether to other ciiuses, and not to 
the teachers, the fact still remains that where there 
is a high average attendance, women, as teachers, are 
generally preferred to men. 

The wide difference between the averaij^e salaries 
of men and of women, in some of the States, is 
owing to the fact that it has been customary in the 
country to pay men more than women, and in cities 
and towns to employ male principals. This custom, 
how^ever, seems to be losing ground in some places. 
As proof of this, I quote from an editorial in a late 
number of the "National Journal of Education," 
Boston. It says : — 

''In St. Louis no discrimination is made between 
the salaries of men and women teaching in the same 
grade of school ; and in California the Legislature 
has prohibited the making of distinctions in the sal- 
aries of men and women teachers holdino; the same 
o'rade of certificate. In Chica<2:o, curiously enouii:h, 
there is a positive discrimination in favor of Avomen ; 
for though a man cannot enter the schools without 
passing what is called a ' principals' examination,' 
there are women occupying principals' positions who 
never passed any examination more difficult than 
that for teachers of the lowest primaiy grades. The 



416 GRADUATING SYSTEM FOR COUNTRY SCHOOLS. 

women principals in the Chicago schools now out- 
number the men principals two to one." 

There is, perhaps, in some places, danger that the 
practice of employing women as teachers in prefer- 
ence to men may be overdone. I would no more 
place all the schools in the hands of women, than I 
would place the instruction of children in the home 
entn^ely in the hands of the mother. 

I believe, however, that where woman's education 
is equal to man's, she is generally superior to him as 
an instructor. Indeed it seems to be a fact that a 
woman's teaching efficiency often is superior to her 
education, while a man's value as an instructor is 
frequently below his acquirements. 

An excellent authority on education says : — 

" Regarding .female teachers, we wish to say that 
we believe it is especially fortunate that the younger 
classes in our schools are generally in charge of 
women. Women, as a class, or the real woman, is 
' apt to teach.' She is patient, is in sympathy with the 
young, understands their needs, their little sorrows, 
their tender minds, and, by her affection, can influ- 
ence, control, and guide. Women's refinement, 
clear perceptions, and pleasing address, admirably 
fit them for primary teachers ; and in many cases it 
is believed that rude boys, verging on manhood in 
stature, will be better controlled and taught by a 
thoroughly competent and dignified woman, one of 
good sense and large experience, than by men." 

I come, in conclusion, to speak of women as 



WOMEN AS TEACHERS AND SCHOOL OFFICERS. 417 

school officers ; and I shall aim simply to present 
the drift of public sentiment upon this subject. 

An editorial in the New York ^'Tribune," of 
March 24, 1880, referring to a law which had 
just been enacted by the Legislature of that State, 
says : — 

" The best feature of the bill is unequivocal in its 
application. Women are eligible to election or ap- 
pointment as school officers of ali grades, from the 
lowest to the highest. In this city they can serve as 
trustees, inspectors, or commissioners, and through- 
out the State they can direct the educational inter- 
ests of town or country. That women are compe- 
tent for such duties cannot be seriously questioned. 
For our part, we have never doubted that the effi- 
ciency of our schools would be promoted by the 
CO operation of the sexes in their management in 
high as well as in low places. We hope that the 
first vacancies which occur in this department of our 
city government will be filled by the appointment of 
women, — as commissioners, as well as trustees and 
inspectors. The experiment has been tried with sat- 
isfactory results in fourteen States, and there is no 
reason to suppose that it will fail in New York, 
where so large and so intelligent a body of women 
are devoting their lives to education." 

An editorial in a late number of the "Legal 
News," Chicago, says : — 

"When Judge Brad well, in 1873, introduced in 
the Lei>:islature of this State the bill, which is now a 



418 GRADUATING SYSTEM FOR COUNTRY SCHOOLS. 

law, making women eligible to all school offices, the 
opponents of the measure claimed, if passed, it 
would be a dead letter, as women would not consent 
to take office ; and, if they did, they would only 
show that they were inefficient ; and that if a woman 
was once elected to a responsible school office, she 
would never be re-elected. The bill became a law, 
and the very first year fourteen women were elected 
county superintendents of schools ; and the Hon. 
Newton Bateman, State superintendent, gave it as 
his opinion that the average ability of the women 
that were elected was higher than that of the men. 
Every year since the passage of the bid, Illinois has 
had quite a number of women superintendents, all 
of whom have proved faithful, efficient officers, and 
not a defaulter has been found among them ; and 
this is more than can be said of all their brother su- 
perintendents. A number of these womeii superin- 
tendents have, from time to time, been re-elected. 
Among them we will mention Mrs. West, of Gales- 
burg, who is one of the most capable superintendents 
in the State ; Jind Mrs. Mary L. Carpenter, who 
was elected at the first election under the law, and 
has been re elected at every election since. She has 
just entered upon her seventh year as superintendent 
of the public schools of Winnebago County, one of 
the best counties in the State." 

The State convention, of the minority party in 
Kansas, in 1880, placed Miss Sarah E. Brown upon 
the ticket as a candidate for State superintendent of 



WOMEN AS TEACPIERS AXD SCHOOL OFFICERS. 411) 

schools. In order to show the sentiment of the 
convention upon this subject, I quote from a corre- 
spondent of the New York " Times." Speaking of 
the convention,' he says : " The nomination of Miss 
Sarah E Brown was the event of the day at the 
Democratic State Convention. She is at present 
school superintendent of Douglass County. Ex- 
Senator Ross (the nominee for governor) was 
loudly called for, and came upon the platform and 
said that he felt highly honored in being placed 
upon the same ticket with such a distinguished lady. 
He thought the nomination of Miss Brown emi- 
nently proper. Judge J. S. Emery, a member of 
the LaAvrence delegation, which made a strong fight 
against the lady's nomination, was interviewed by a 
reporter. He said : ' The truth is, the opposition to 
her grew out of the fact that she has taken an active 
part in the temperance campaign in our county. 
She is strongly in favor of the proposed amendment 
to the Constitution, and this has excited the antip- 
athy of the whiskey dealers. She is county super- 
intendent of schools, beat the regular Republican 
candidate last time by a fine majority, and her nomi- 
nation on our State ticket will give it great 
strength." 

The experiment of electing women as school offi- 
cers was tested in Great Britain before it was tried 
in the United States. The following editorial from 
the London " Modern Thought " shows how the plan 
works on the other side of the sea. 



420 GRADUATING SYSTEM FOR COUNTRY SCHOOLS. 

Speaking of women on school boards, it says ; — 
" London is not the only city which has gladly 
welcomed women candidates. Manchester elected 
Miss Becker three times. Brighton returned Miss 
Ricketts at the head of the poll; Bath, in 1870, 
elected two ladies; Birmingham, Huddersfield, Ox- 
ford, Exeter, all followed this example. In Scot- 
land a very large number of ladies were elected, and 
in subsequent elections many other towns and small 
country districts have raised women to this position 
of trust. Nor has this confidence been misplaced. 
They have shown themselves fully the equals of men 
in their business capacity, and their superiors in 
philanthropic schemes." 



LECTURE XXXV. 

A GLANCE AT EDUCATION ABROAD. 

My main purpose, at present, is to consider the 
comparative merits of the common schools of Europe 
and of the United States. Before I begin the dis- 
cussion of this subject, however, I wish to give a 
glimpse of the light in which the higher educational 
institutions of the two countries are viewed by some 
of the leading Asiatic nations. 

When China, in 1860, was compelled by Western 
powers to open her ports to the commerce of the 
world, she determined to educate her comins: officers 
in schools of more modern thought than were to be 
found in the Chinese Empire. Glancing at the sev- 
eral systems of education upon the globe, she passed 
by the schools of Europe, and sent one hundred of 
her choicest young men to the United States to be 
educated. If it be maintained, as a reasou for this, 
that China, at that time, was unfriendly to European 
nations, and regarded our people as her truest friends, 
I answer that notwithstanding the strong opposition 
to Chinese emigration which, for several years, has 
existed in some sections of this country, China still 



422 GRADUATING SYSTEM FOR COUNTRY SCHOOLS. 

continues to send her young noblemen to the United 
States, in order that they may be trained for posi- 
tions of trust. 

The Empire of Japan, following the example of 
China, is sending some of her most promising sons 
to American schools, expecting that, when educated, 
they will carry back to their own country the pro- 
gressive spirit of our civilization. 

Perhaps I cannot better present this subject than 
by quoting the hmguage of that celebrated lecturer, 
the Rev. Joseph Cook. In one of his late " Boston 
Monday Lectures," Mr. Cook said : — 

"The presence of Chinese and Japanese students 
in our American schools in considerable numbers, 
studying after a careful method, and v/ith a definite 
aim, is significant of something more than a spirit 
of curiosity, adventure, enterprise, the love of knowl- 
ed<re, or the iireed of o^ain ; of somethinof more than 
better means of transit, the increase of traffic, the 
breaking down of exclusiveness, the victories of 
diplomacy. The Eastern civilizations arc laying hold 
upon tlie Western, and not only our industries, our 
arts, our sciences, but also our historj^ our literature, 
our methods of inquiry, and our religious ideas, are 
going back to the Orient in the persons of educrited 
young men, trained among us from boyhood under 
careful supervision, and quickened hy the inspiration 
of a cnreer waitinsf before them. 

"The Chinese government has, in 1^80, on the east 
coast, in our best American schools, a hundred or 



A GLANCE AT EDUCATION ABROAD. 423 

a hundred and twenty Chinese students from the 
upper classes in the ^ Celestial Empire.' With re- 
spect to these, several points are worthy of special 
mention. They are selected w^ith care, after a long 
probation. They are sent here to remain, on an 
average, fifteen years, and to pass through the suc- 
cessive stages of elementary, secondary, college, and 
professional or technical education. They are pre- 
paring for a great diversity of employments. They 
are not allowed to denationalize themselves, but all 
their studies are carried on with direct reference to 
their future career in their native land. Their con- 
formity to our modes of dress, and our habits of 
society and living, is a matter of convenience and 
courtesy, not a surrender. They come to get the 
most and the best we can give, but only to take and 
use it for the benefit of their country. Far more 
than our boys at West Point and Annapolis, they 
regard themselves as already in the service of the 
state. On their return they are expected to devote 
their education to the service of the nation in its 
widest sense." 

I might multiply proofs of preferences given to 
American colleges by disinterested nations ; but I 
desire now to turn to my subject, — the common 
schools of Europe and of the United States. 

Determined to present the most authoritative tes- 
timony upon this subject, I wrote to Hon. E. A. 
Apgar, State superintendent of public instruction 
of New Jersey, and late United States Commissioner 



424 GRADUATING SYSTEM FOR COUNTRY SCHOOLS. 

to the Paris Exposition, requesting him to furnish 
me a brief but clear statement of the com;)arative 
merits of the common schools of this country and 
Europe. He very promptly sent me his official re- 
port of "Schools Abroad," and suggested that, so 
far as my space would permit, I might use such por- 
tions of the report as were suited to my subject. 
This report is dated Trenton, New Jersey, Nov. 7, 
1878. 

Prof. Apgar's reputation as an educator, extensive 
traveller, and close observer is sufficient guaranty 
that his opinions in matters of education are of the 
highest value ; and, without offering any further 
opinions of my own upon this subject, I present the 
following from his official report : — 

For many years I have had an earnest desire to 
visit Europe, and this desire has been gratified. Be- 
fore starting, I was honored with a nomination by 
Gov. McClellan, and an appointment by President 
Hayes as United States Commissioner to the Paris 
Exposition. I was also favored by Gen. Eaton, 
Chief of the Bureau of Education at Washington, 
with letters of introduction to prominent educators 
and school officers in various countries. I thus en- 
joyed peculiar advantages in studying school sys- 
tems abroad. 

My tour extended through England, France, Bel- 
gium, Holland, the Rhine district, Switzerland, and 
Italy. I travelled in all about twelve thousand 



A GLANCE AT EDUCATION ABROAD. 425 

miles. I felt the same anxiety common to all trav- 
ellers the first time they visit Europe, to see every- 
thing. Historical monuments, church architecture, 
pictm-e galleries, sculpture, antiquities, museums, 
natural sceneiy, the Paris Exposition, etc., etc., all 
made demands upon my time. I, however, gav^e 
special attention to European systems and methods 
of instruction, and seldom left a city without either 
visiting some of the schools or ascertaining some- 
thin": of what was beino: done for the education of 
the children. In some respects their schools resem- 
ble ours, and in others the contrast is quite striking. 

Building,^. — The buildings, as a rule, are not so 
good as those in this country. Most of them have 
either been rented or purchased, and awkwardly 
adapted to the uses of the school. Even in Paris 
the schools I visited were held in buildings which 
had not originally been erected for school purposes 

Furniture. — Not in a sinsrle school, from London 
to Naples, did I find the school furniture equal to 
ours. The pupils usually sit ou long benches ca- 
|)able of accommodating from four to six. Some of 
the forms are for two only ; in their construction, how- 
ever, no attention is paid to beauty, and but little to 
comfort. In general, I am justified in saying that 
the seats and desks for pupils and teachers in the 
schools of Europe are no better than those which 
were in use in ours twenty-five years ago. I saw 
many schools where there were evidences of as free 
a use of the jack-knife as the Yankee boy was ever 



426 GRADUATING SYSTEM FOR COUNTRY SCHOOLS. 

guilty of in the days when his natural propensity in 
this direction was unrestrained. The blackboards I 
saw were quite inferior, and what seemed most re- 
markal)le was that only one, large enough for the 
teacher's use, was to be seen in each room. Only 
the teacher makes use of the blackboard. In this 
respect our mode of teaching, which requires much 
blackboard work by the pupils, is superior to for- 
eign methods. The rooms are usually Ave 11 supplied 
with maps and charts. Metric charts and apparatus 
are to be found in all the schools outside of England, 
and in all departments. Small natural-history col- 
lections are occasionally seen, but usually there is a 
large museum in the city, which the classes, accom- 
panied by their teachers, visit, and thus some knowl- 
edge is gained of familiar objects in natural history. 
In this respect w^e, in this country, are sadly de- 
ficient 

Salute. — The military spirit which prevails in 
Europe is manifest in the schools. On every occa- 
sion when I entered a room all the children rose and 
gave a military salute. This consists in gracefully 
raising the right arm, and placing the right hand, with 
the tw^o forefingers extended, at the side of the fore- 
head. It is a simultaneous and graceful movement, 
and constitutes a beautiful sight. It causes a serious 
interruption in the exercises of the school, however, 
and for this reason I should dislike to see the custom 
introduced into our schools. It is to be preferred, 
however, to the idle stare of a hundred eyes with 



A GLANCE AT EDUCATION ABROAD. 427 

which a visitor is too often greeted. Those pupils 
are best trained who continue their studying, and 
give no evidence of being conscious of the presence 
of a stranger. A visitor will, of course, be saluted 
by the teacher, but beyond that his entrance into 
the room should cause no interruption, either in the 
teacher's or the pupil's work. 

Holidaijs. — The schools outside of England are 
closed on Thursday instead of Saturday, as with us. 
There are numerous other holidays, called festal 
days, which sadly interrupt the work of education. 
Some are prescribed by the church, others by the 
state. In Italy scarcely a week passes without one 
or two interruptions of this nature. 

Studies. — The studies i)ursued are much the same 
as here. In all the girls' departments instruction is 
given in needle and crochet work, in embroidery, 
and in the making of lace. Usually one afternoon 
of each weel^ is devoted to hand-work of this na- 
ture. Much attention is given to composition writ- 
ing, far more than with us. The teachers all seem 
to take special pride in showing the compositions 
Avhich the pupils have written. Drawing is more 
generally taught there than in our schools. It is be- 
gun in the lowest rooms, and continued throughout 
the course. Copy is used to some extent in the pri- 
mary departments, but frequently in the lower 
grades, and generally in the higher, objects take the 
place of copy. In this branch I consider their 
method of teaching superior to ours, and better re- 
sults are accomplished. 



428 GRADUATING SYSTEM FOR COUNTRY SCHOOLS. 

Coeducation. — In our schools, except in the 
higher departments, the girls and boys are generally 
taught together. In Europe this coeducation of the 
sexes is unknown. In all the departments, from the 
lowest to the highest, they are separated. In Paris 
I found a custom prevailing which I did not observe 
elsewhere ; the boys are all taught by men, and the 
girls by women 

In general, we have as good work done by the 
teachers of our country as can be seen in the schools 
of Europe, and in some particulars our methods of 
teaching are superior to theirs. 

Tuition Fees. — Free schools for children of all 
classes, such as we have in this country, are un- 
known in Europe. The terms " public " and " free " 
are both applied to their schools, but with a meaning 
quite different from that which belongs to them as 
used here. A " public school " is one subject to gov- 
ernmental control, and a "free school" is one which, 
in a mea ure, is free from such restrictions and regu 
lations as have been prescribed by the government. 
Both classes receive assistance from the public treas- 
ury, but not sufficient to meet all the expenses. 
Tuition fees are charsfed in both. Those known as 
*' public schools " receive more aid from the govern- 
ment than those called " free," and hence the latter 
are more expensive to the patrons than the former. 
The proportion of expense paid as tuition varies in 
different countries. In London and Paris about 
four fifths of the entire expense of maintaining the 



A GLANCE AT EDUCATION ABROAD. 421> 

schools is paid by the government, and the balance 
is asssessed upon the parents of the children who at- 
tend. Last year the fees in London ranged from 
four to eighteen cents for each pupil per week. This 
is about the average in other countries ; in some the 
percentage paid as tuition is lower, and in some it is 
higher. In several of the countries the governments 
have prescribed the maximum and the minimum for 
the charges that can be made, and the local authori- 
ties determine the varying amounts between these ex- 
tremes that shall be paid by the school patrons, ac- 
cording to their varying financial conditions I 
found in some cases there was an ascending scale of 
fees charged, the expense being very slight in the 
lowest departments, and gradually increasing through 
the advancing grades. In the schools of Sweden a 
small tuition fee is charged for all children over ten 
years of age.. The people of Sweden, generally, are 
educated. According to a peculiar law, no person is 
permitted to marry until he is confirmed, and he is 
not admitted to confirmation unless he can satisfy the 
curate that he is able to read. In all of the countries 
of Europe [)rovision is made for the free education 
of those who are unable to pay. Such children, how- 
ever, are looked upon as pauper pupils. Sometimes 
all such are gathered together, and the school is known 
as a pauper school. The rule is, those who can pay 
must. The distinction between the rich, or those in 
moderate circumstances, and the very poor, is thus 
made unpleasantly prominent. 



430 GRADUATING SYSTEM FOR COUNTRY SCHOOLS. 

Public schools, which, from the lowest to the high- 
est grades, are free to all alike, both rich and poor, 
thus giving to all equal chances for success in life, 
can only be found in this country ; and this fact, 
more than any other I learned abroad, impressed me 
wdth the superiority of our public educational sys- 
tems over those in Europe. 

Conclusion. — I am satisfied that we in this coun- 
try have the best public-school system in the world. 
We furnish better facilities to the whole people for 
acquiring a fundamental education than any other 
country. There is no excuse for any of our chil- 
dren growing up in ignorance of the common or 
ordinary branches of knowledge. We have good 
colleges and professional schools also. Any one, af- 
ter completing his public-school course, can avail 
himself of the advantaiJ:es of these hiofher institutions 
of learning, and thus prepare himself for any of the 
learned professions. 

In Europe the educational work had its beginning 
at the top, in the founding of the higher institutions 
of learning, and the progress has been downwards. 
The establishment of public schools in some of the 
countries of Europe is quite recent. In this coun- 
try we began at the bottom, by first establishing the 
lower schools for the public, and our progress must 
be upwards. 



LECTURE XXXVI. 

UNIFORM MONEY, WEIGHTS, AND MEASURES FOR TIIE 
WORLD. 

• Lightning and steam have brought the nations of 
the earth so near each other that a uniform system of 
money, weights, and measures seems to l)e almost 
absolutely essential. Such a system would bring 
the business of all nations into harmony, save mill- 
ions annually in computations, aud wonderfully les- 
sen the labor of the school life of every child. 
The Metric S3^stem, now making rapid headway 
amono^ all civilized nations, furnishes a uuiform stand- 
ard for everything susceptible of being weighed or 
measured ; and of this system I propose to speak. 

My object, in presenting this subject, is to aid in 
educating the American p; ople in the belief of the 
fact that national legislation upou this subject is a 
matter in which every man, woman, and child is in- 
terested. It is a liict worthy of note, that under a 
monarchy the lawmakers are the leaders of the 
people, but in a republic the people lead the law- 
makers. In this country, therefore, all laws looking 
to important changes must originate with the people. 



432 GRADUATING SYSTEM FOR COUNTRY SCHOOLS. 

By the courtesy of Hon. E. A. Apgar, of Tren- 
ton, N. J., late United States Commissioner of Edu- 
cation to Europe, I am permitted to present from 
his pen, as my concluding lecture, the following 
carefully prepared article on the subject of the 

METEIC SYSTEM. 

In the early history of the world, when civiliza- 
tion had made but little progress, tables of weights 
and measures were unknown. Trade was conducted 
in the form of barter. One article was exchansfed 
for another, or a single one of a certain descrip- 
tion for several of another. As civilization ad- 
vanced and wealth increased, the necessity of a 
common understanding relative to weights, meas- 
ures, and values became apparent. Out of this 
necessity arose the various systems that have 
prevailed among all nations and tribes. These 
systems were as numerous as were the centres of 
trade or traffic. Each tribe or clan had its own. 
They were in no sense related to each other; their 
units were incommensurable ; and the ratios of in- 
crease and decrease were entirely the result of acci- 
dent or caprice. In the commercial world confusion 
reigned supreme. As late as the year 1800, there 
were in Europe not less than eighty different lengths 
for tlie foot in use. Equal diversity existed in all 
measures for weight and capacity. In Italy, each 
province had its own system ; in Germany, each 



UNIFOKM MONF.Y, WEIGHTS, AND IMEASUIiES. 433 

state; in France, each district; in Switzerland, each 
canton ; and so throughout Europe every local polit- 
ical organization traded, reckoned, and kept accounts 
according to its own arithmetic, which was like no 
other arithmetic in the world. Take two cantons 
of Switzerland, for instance. In Berne, the foot was 
11.54 inches; in Zurich, it was 11.81 inches. In 
Berne, the unit of weight wis 18. 64 ounces avoirdu- 
pois ; in Zurich, it was 18.35 ounces. In Berne, the 
measure of liquid capacity was 1.76 quarts ; in Zurich, 
it was 1.92 quarts. Berne had four different bushels 
for diiferent sul)stances ; that for wheat contained 
1.55 pecks ; in Zurich, the measure for the same sub- 
stance contained 2.33 pecks. This only illustrates 
the confusion that prevailed throughout every coun- 
try in Europe, only three fourths of a century ago. 
And what made the matter infinitely worse, these 
units for weight, measure, and capacity, which num- 
bered at least five hundred in all, were incommensu- 
rable. There was, so far as is known, but a single 
exception to this. The sagene of Russia, which was 
their unit of length, was just seven times as long as 
the English foot. With this one cxeption, there was 
not a single term used to designate quantity anj^- 
where in Europe that could be expressed in exact 
numbers by any term used elsewhere. And even 
this does not illustrate the extent of the confusion 
that existed ; the multiples and sub-multiples for the 
increase and decrease of these units were equally 
diverse. No other cause contributed so largely as 

28 • 



434 GRADUATING SYSTEM FOll COUNTRY SCHOOLS. 

this to embarrass business transactions among men. 
Commercial exchanges between diflerent countries, 
or between different provinces, cities, or even indi- 
viduals of the same country, were subject to contin- 
ual misunderstanding, confusion, and fraud These 
embarrassments increased as commercial intercourse 
increased, until it became apparent that the only 
relief possible was that to be found in the general 
adoption, throughout the world, of one common 
system of weights and measures. Until nearly the 
close of the eighteenth century, however, nothing 
seems to have been done looking toward the acccmi- 
plishment of this object. It was reserved for ihQ 
Constituent Assembly of France, during the most 
critical period of that country's history, to devise, 
for the common use of all nations, a system of 
weisfhts and measures that should be constructed 
strictly according to scientific method. The princi- 
ples that the assembly had in view in this undrrtak- 
were : — 

That for everything susceptible of being measured 
or weighed, there should be only one measure of 
length, one of weight, and one of contents, with 
their multiples and subdivisions exclusively in deci- 
mal proportions, and that the three units used should 
be commensurable." 

I will here briefly relate the history of this impor- 
tant undertaking : — 

Prince de Talleyrand, in the year 1790, addressed 
to the Constituent Assembly of France a proposal. 



UNIFORM MONEY, TVEIGHTS, AND MEASURES. 435 

in which he urged the adoption of a new system of 
weights and measures that should be founded upon 
a single and unalterable standard. This proposal 
assumed the form of a decree, wdiich was, passed by 
the assembly, and received the sanction of Louis 
XVI. on the 22d of August, 1790. By the terms 
of this decree the king was requested to write to the 
king of Great Britain, inviting him to propose to the 
Parliament the formation of a joint commission of 
members of the "Eoyal Society" of England, and 
of the "Academy of Sciences" of France, to deter- 
mine upon a unit for the proposed international 
S3^stem. 

On account of the political animosities then exist- 
ing between these two countries, the invitation for 
a conference extended by France failed to receive 
acceptance on the part of England. This, for many 
reasons, is greatly to be regretted. The matter was 
then referred, by a decree of the National Assembly, 
to a committee of the Academy of Sciences, consist- 
ing of five of the most eminent mathematicians of 
the country. Their report was made to the academy, 
and immediately transmitted to the assembly. This 
occurred March 19, 1791. The committee, in its 
report, proposed that the ten-millionth part of the 
quarter of a meridan be taken as the standard unit 
of linear measure, and that the Aveight of distilled 
water at the point of freezing, measured by a cubical 
vessel in decimal proportions to the linear standard, 
should determine the standard of weight and capacity. 



436 GRADUATING SYSTEM FOR COUNTRY SCHOOLS. 

This report received the sanction of the assembly, 
and a committee of the academy was appointed to 
determine the length of the standard unit for the 
new systenj. This was a laborions operation, and 
consisted in a trigonometrical measurement of an arc 
of the meridian extending through France, from Dun- 
kirk to Barcelona, a work that occupied seven 3'ears. 
In the year 1799, an international commission as- 
sembled at Paris, on the invitation of the govern- 
ment to settle, from the results of the great meridian 
survey, the exact length of the meter. In this com- 
mission were represented the governments of France, 
Holland, Denmark, Sweden, Switzerland, Spain, and 
the Roman Republic. After the completion of its 
labors, the conmiission proceeded, on the 22d of June, 
179. , to deposit, at the Palace of the Archives, in 
PajL'is, the standard meter bar of platinum, and the 
standard kilos^ram weisfht. These standards have 
since become the units of weis^hts and measures for 
nearly the entire civilized glo])e. 

Althou2:h the leno^th of the unit, the meter, had 
been determined with such extreme care, it was, 
nevertheless, clear that the measurement of the 
earth's meridian, or any other unvarying dimension, 
could never be made with absolute accuracy. It 
was, therefore, evident that if the standard meter at 
Paris should be destroyed at any time, its exact du- 
plicate could never be found. Accordingly, on the 
twenty-fourth day of September, 1872, the Interna- 
tional Metric Commission, composed of scientific men 



UNIFORM MONEY, WEIGHTS, AND MEASURES. 437 

of all countries, including the United States, met at 
Paris, for the purpose of providing against this dan- 
ger. They resolved to make a new bar to replace 
the prototype, and to make it out of better material, 
and with a better cross section; and also, that four 
others should be made and placed in charge of the 
International Bureau, to be kept in a comparatively 
uniform temperature, for the purpose of studying 
the eftects of time, by com[>arison, at interv^als. 
They also provided that another similar bar should 
be kept at invariable temperature in a vacuum. 
They even recommended that, for fuither securit}^, 
samples be made of quartz and beryl. The conven- 
tion also resolved that bars of the same form, cast 
from the same ingot of platinum and iridium, in or- 
der that the expansion, contraction, and other mod- 
ifying influences should be the same for all the bars, 
should bo constructed for all nations that applied for 
them. In accordance with the action of this com- 
mission, and in strict conformity with its directions, 
an ingot of metal, composed of ninety per cent of 
platinum and ten per cent of iridium, was cast large 
enough to make all the standards required. This 
casting was made in 18.74, and all the bars were 
completed in 1875, and nearly every country of the 
globe has Ijecn supplied with one that has the same 
legal authenticity as the prototype standard itself. 
Thus nearly every nation has in its possession a 
standard for all weights and measures, as unalter- 
able and indestructible as modern science and skill, 



438 GRADUATING SYSTEM FOR COUNTRY SCHOOLS. 

exercising all possible care and caution, can make it. 
Every one of these copies of the prototype is ac- 
companied with its certified equation, and the length 
of the meter is determined from these rods when en- 
cased in ice. From this standard is derived the 
units for capacity and weight, and each unit in- 
creases and diminishes l)y the ratio of ten. Thus 
all the tables agree with our system of notation and 
with our currency table. The liter is the unit for 
measures of capacity, and is equal in volume to one 
cubic decimeter. The gram is the unit for weight, 
and is equal to the weight of one cubic centimeter, 
or a millimeter of water at four degrees centigrade. 
The relation existing between the different tables is 
shown in the following tabulation, which represents 
at one view the entire metric system : — 



METRIC TABLE. 
Length. Abbreviation. 

Millimeter mm. 

Centimeter cm. 

Decimeter dm. 

METEE m. 

Dekameter Dm. 

Hektometer Hm. 

Kilometer Km. 

Myriameter Mm. 

Capacity. Abbreviation. 

(cm.) cubed = Milliliter ml. 

Centiliter cl. 

Deciliter dl. 



UNIFORM MONEY, WEIGHTS, AND MEASURES. 439 

Capacity. Abbreviation. 

(dm.) cubed = LITER 1. 

Dekaliter Dl. 

Hektoliter HI. 

(m.) cubed = Kiloliter Kl. 

Myrialiter Ml. 

Weight. Abbreviation. 

Milligram mg. 

Centigram eg. 

Decigram dg. 

1 ml. of water = GRAM g. 

1 cl. " = Dekagram Dg. 

1 dl. " = Hektogram Hg. 

11. " == Kilogram Kg. 

1 Dl. " = Myriagram Mg. 

1 HI. " = Quintal Q. 

IKl. " =ToN MT. 



In the above table it will be understood that ten 
of any denomination make one of the next ; thus, 
ten millimeters equal to one centimeter ; ten milli- 
liters equal to one centiliter ; ten milligrams equal 
to one centigram, etc. The table of length is con- 
verted into a table of square measure hy considering 
that ten of any denomination, squared, makes the 
square of the next denomination ; thus, ten square 
millimeter equal to one square centimeter, etc. 
The same table is converted into cubic measure by 
considering that one hundred of any denomination, 
cubed, make the cube of the next denomination ; 
thus, one hundred cubic millimeter are equal to one 
cubic centimeter, etc. 



440 GRADUATING SYSTEM FOR COUNTRY SCHOOLS. 

In the table of length the meter is the unit, and it 
is the term used in the measurement of dry goods, 
taking the place of the yard. Its length is about 
three feet three inches and three eighths. The mil- 
limeter is used in the measurement of small objects, 
such as the parts of insects. The kilometer is the 
term used for long distances, and becomes the sub- 
stitute for the mile. 

In the table of capacity the liter is the unit, and 
takes the place of the quart for ordinary use, from 
which it differs but slightly. The term centiliter 
is used in measuring small quantities. For the 
measurement of grain, etc., the hectoliter take^ the 
place of the bushel. 

In the table of weight the gram is the unit, and 
serves as a small weight. For very delicate weigh- 
ing, such as is required in scientific experiments, the 
centigram is the term used. For ordinary use in a 
grocery store the kilogram takes the place of the 
pound. Its weight is about equal to 2.2 pounds. 
For heavy weighing, the metric ton becomes a sub- 
stitute for our present ton. 

The following table represents, in a condensed 
form, the progress that has been made in the adop- 
tion of the metric system by the various countries of 
the world. 

Those countries where it may be said, with substan- 
tial accuracy, that the metric system is already in 
exclusive use, are printed in large capitals, and those 
where its use i^ permissive, in small capitals. 



UNIFORM MONEY, WEIGHTS, AND MEASURES. 441 



1863 
1872 
1836 

1862 
1848 

1857 



1856 

1837 



1876 



1873 



1840 



1868 


1872 


1864 


.... 


1836 


.... 


1817 


1821 





1863 


18.37 


1862 


1852 


1864 


1864. 


1866 


1849 
1876 


1850 
1889 


1851 


1857 


1870 


.... 



List of 
Countries. 



Argentine Con- 

FEd'e RATION. 

AUSTRIA 

BELGIUM 

BRAZIL 

Chili 

Costa Rica 

Denmark 

Ecuador 

FRANCE 

GERMANY 



Great Britain . . 

Greece 

HOLLAND 

ITALY 

Mexico 

Norway 

Peru 

PORTUGAL .... 
ROUMANIA .... 



Russia . . 



SPAIN . 
Sweden 



Remarks. 



SWITZERLAND 



Turkey 



Obligatory law incompletely enforced. 
Metric system used in customs. 

German names allowed. 

Used previously with different nomencla- 
ture. 

In some markets, commodities for exporta- 
tion are quoted in the old measures. 

The metricisystem is legal. 

Government was authorized to establish the 
metric system, but old measures are t-till 
used. 

Pound of 500 grams, decimally divided, 
adopted in 1852. 

Metric system prescribed, but others still 
used. 

A modified metric system was previously 
used. 

In some special cases, till 1875 was allowed 

to complete the change. German names 

are permitted. 

fin India special weights and measures may 

I be authorized by the governor-general. 

IThe kilogram is called ser. The meter 
has been adopted in the construction of 
some of India state railways. 
I The metric system is used with modified 
} nomenclature. 

Dutch names are used. 
S Previously adopted in some parts of the 
} present kingdom of Italy. 
I Law obligatory, but old measures still in 
( use. 

I Likely to follow Sweden. The pound is 
} taken to be equal to 500 grams, 
i Government has adopted metric system. 
( Citizens use a variety of measures, 
i Other measures are probably used to some 
I extent. 



An Imperial Commission has reported in 
favor of the introduction of the metric 
■ system. Its use in the custom-house was 
ordered in 1870. 



Compulsory law will take effect in 1889. 
The Swiss system is not completely metric, 

but has a foot equal to 30 centimetres; 

and, decimally divided, a pound equal to 

500 grams, etc. 
It has been stated that the archive has been 

made equal to 75 centimeters; also, that 

the metric system was made obligatory 

in 1870. ' 



442 GRADUATING SYSTEM FOR COUNTRY SCHOOLS. 



fl 


. 


o 


a 


•-3 


o 


ca 




!D 


Ci. 


•s, 




:^ 


< 


o 


o 




S 






d 




Q 


ft 


1866 


.... 


1853 




1865 


1867 


1857 


.... 



List of 

COUNTKIES. 



U. S. opAmekica, 

U.S.or Colombia, 

Uruguay 

Venezuela 



Remarks. 



The metric system is used in the mint, and 

on the coast survey. 
Official system metric; various measures 

in private use. 
Law obligatory, but old measures still in 

use. 
Both systems used. 



To sum this all np in twenty words, Russia, Eng- 
land, and the United States use the British foot ; 
the rest of Christendom is committed to the metric 
system. 

In the year 1871 a bill was introduced in the 
English Parliament to render the use of the metric 
system compulsory, and was lost by only five votes, 
the vote standing eighty-two against the bill and 
seventy-seven for it. From the closeness of this 
vote, it is evident that the time for the exclusive 
use of the system throughout England cannot be 
much longer postponed. Thus, in Europe, the coun- 
tries, in rapid succession, have adopted these inter- 
national standards. Can any one suppose that the 
progress already made is going to be arrested at the 
point it has now reached? No. The world must 
and will have a uniform system of weights and 
measures ; and the only question that arises is. What 
system shall it be? And here it may be well to 
state that except the metric system, and that which 



UNIFORM MONEY, WEIGHTS, AND MEASURES. 443 

we use, no other one existing can be advocated as 
having the least claim for the world's adoption. 
The choice must, therefore, be between our own 
and the metric. It would l)e exceedinijfly flatterinof 
to our Yankee pride if we could convert the whole 
world to our way of doing business. 

Let us examine some of the advantages our system 
possesses, and perhaps we may convince the world 
that it is the best. 

Our unit of measurement is the foot ; three of 
these make a yard ; five and a half yards constitute 
a rod ; forty rods a furlong, and eight furlongs a 
mile. For surface measure, our square yard is nine 
square feet ; our square rod is thirty and one quarter 
square 3^ards, or two hundred and seventy-two and 
one quarter square feet ; and one acre is one iuuidred 
and sixty square rods, or four thousand eight hun- 
dred and forty square yards, or forty-three thou- 
sand five hundred and sixty square feet. It is diffi- 
cult to comprehend an3'thing more ingenious than 
this. 

For capacity our unit is the gallon, or our units, 
rather, for we have the advantage of having several 
of them. These are all related to the unit of length, 
and the relation is so simple that it can be remem- 
bered by at least one })erson in every ten thousand. 
The dry gallon contains two hundred and eighty-six 
and eight tenths cubic inches, more or less ; the wine 
gallon contains two hundred and thirty-one cubic 
inches, and the beer gallon two hundred and eighty- 



444 GRADUATING SYSTEM FOR COUNTRY SCHOOLS. 

two. Thirty-two of these gallons make a barrel of 
cider ; thirty-one and a half a barrel of ale ; thirty- 
six a barrel of milk ; thirty a barrel of fish, etc. 
One has almost unlimited freedom of choice to take 
what he prefers. Our unit of weight is related to 
our measure of length ; at least this is the presump- 
tion. It may be expressed approximately by a 
decimal two miles and a half in length. If the 
avoirdupois pound is too heavy, we can take the 
Troy pound, which is some lighter. These pounds 
have the advantage also of being divided differently, 
the one into sixteen ounces, and the other into 
twelve. These ounces diifer, also, in weight ; and, 
by a beautiful law of contrarieties, as the avoirdupois 
pound is heavier than the pound Troy, the avoirdu- 
pois ounce is lighter. These ounces are divided 
into drams, which difier also, — the one is about 
three times the weight of the other. 

Our tables contain ratios or multipliers to suit the 
most particular. The beauty of our system in this 
respect must command the admiration of all. 

We have, among these ratios, three 2's ; nine 3's ; 
two 4's ; four 5's ; one 7 ; five 8's ; one 9 ; four lO's ; 
two 12's; three 16's^ three 20's ; one 24; two 25's ; 
one 27; six 30's ; three 40's ; one 50; three 60's ; 
one 80; two lOO's; one 128; one 144; one 3()0 ; 
one 640 ; one 1728 ; one 5^ ; one 16 J ; one 30^ ; one 
31| ; one 24 J ; (me 7^^^ ; one 69 ^ ; and one 272^. 

If the superiority of our system over the metric 
from this exposition is not apparent, it probably 



UNIFORM MONEY, WEIGHTS, AND IVIEASUEES. 445 

may be shown more clearly by a practical example, 
making use of the two systems. 

I recently had occasion to purchase some pita wood 
to line insect drawers. The price for the wood was 
$1.80 per square yard, or $2.20 per square meter. 
There were twenty drawers in all ; ten of them were 
12 J inches by 15| inches, and the remaining ten were 
12J inches, by 14| inches. Or measured metrically, 
the first series were thirty-two centimeters by forty 
centimeters, and the second series were thirty-two 
centimeters by tliirty-seven and one half centimeters. 

In estimating the cost of the wood needed,, from 
the measurements in inches, the operation is as fol- 
lows : — 

i2||6iL^1296, the number of square inches in a square 
yard, is equal to W\W" 

'WitV' X $1.80, the price per square yard, is equal to 
^¥iW2^^- This reduced equals $5.45if|f|, which is the 
answer sought. 

The following operations are also required in the 
above calculation : — 



103 


103 


144 


1296 


125660 


63 


59 


9 


32 


1.80 


309 


927 


1296 


2592 


100528.00 


618 


515 




3888 


125660 


6489 


6077 




41472 


226188.00 



446 GRADUATING SYSTEM FOR COUNTRY SCHOOLS. 

41472)2261880.00(5.45^f|ff 
2073G0 



188280 
165888 

223920 
207360 

16560 



In estimating the cost from the metric measure- 
ments, the operation is as follows : — 

32 37.5 

40 32 

1280 X 10 = 12800 sq. cm. 750 
1125 

1200.0 X 10 = 12000 sq. cm. 
12800 sq. cm. +12000 sq. cm. = 24800 sq. cm., or 2.48 sq. m. 

2.48 sq. m. 
2.20 



4960 
496 



$5,456 The answer sought. 

In the first calculation there are eighteen opera- 
tions and three hundred and three figures ; in the 
second there are six operations and seventy-four 
figures. 

If the value of mathematics depends upon the 
mental discipline it gives, we certainly should hold 
fast to our present system, for the discipline afforded 



UNIFORM MONEY, WEIGHTS, AND MEASURES. 447 

by working a problem by it is at least tenfold greater 
than it would be if the operation were metric. 

If the confusion existing in Continental Europe at 
the beginning of the present century was sufficient 
to induce the nations to accept the metric system, 
are not the absurdities Ave have pointed out, as exist- 
ing in our country at the present day, sufficient to 
make it an object for us to do the same ? By the 
use of the metric system Ave not only get rid of de- 
nominate numbers, but fractions will scarcely ever 
enter into our mathematical operations. 

The whole Avorld is a unit ; the interests of all 
nations, by commerce and telegraphic communica- 
tions, are so interlocked that neither can retain a 
system of commercial intercourse out of harmony 
with the rest We are out of harmony at present 
with all Continental Europe. This unnatural condi- 
tion cannot continue, and as we cannot expect other 
nations to accept our system in preference to the 
metric, it must be considered as a foregone conchision 
that ours must be supplanted by the metric. This 
change does not involve a question of possibilities 
or of probabilities, but is only one of time. Is any- 
thing gained by postponing the date of making this 
change? Nothing Avhatever. Every year's delay 
makes the change more difficult, but the change must 
be made whatever is the cost or trouble. 

Thus far it can be said that we have not been in- 
diflferent spectators of the world's progress in this 
matter. We have made a beginning, at least. 



448 GRADUATING SYSTEM FOR COUNTRY SCHOOLS. 

In this country the system was legalized in 1866, 
and since then much has heen done to prepare the 
way for its exclusive adoption. It is used by the 
United States Coast Survey, the greatest of our 
public works. The postage law authorizes its use 
by making fifteen grams equivalent to a half-ounce 
for all postal purposes. A knowledge of this fact 
will enable any one to save six per cent of his pos- 
tage expenses, for fifteen grams exceed half an 
ounce by that percentage. The postal department is 
required to furnish metric postal balances to all post- 
offices that make requisitions for them, and many of 
the larger ones have already been supplied. 

Besides this work done by the government to fur- 
ther the use of the system, many manufacturers and 
merchants are beginning to recognize the great ad- 
vantages that are to be gained by the change. The 
American Watch Company, of Waltham, Mass., 
that employs one thousand hands, and turns out 
three hundred and fifty watches daily, has adopted 
the metric system in all its operations. All its com- 
putations, drawings, and tools are purely metric, and 
the superintendent says that nothing could induce 
them to return to the old system. Amherst College 
has taken an advanced position on the metric sys- 
tem, which will soon, in all probability, be followed 
by other leading educational institutions. They not 
only require a knowledge of the system for admis- 
sion, but the professors of the several departments 
of mathematics, physics, astronomy, chemistry, ge- 



UNIFORM MONEY, WEIGHTS, AND MEASURES. 449 

ology, paleontology, botany, zoology, anatomy, and 
physiology use the metric denominations in their 
lectures and instructions. 

The scientific publications issued by the Smithso- 
nian Institute at Washington contain metric expres- 
sions only for all measurements. The American 
Library Association, recently organized, has adopted 
the centimeter as the unit for the measure of all 
books. The system is gaining ground very rapidly 
among physicians. Two societies composed of the 
most active advocates of the system have been 
formed for the purpose of hastening its exclusive 
use. The one is called the " Metrological Society," 
and has its headquarters in New York, and the 
other is known as the " American Metric Bureau," 
and is located in Boston. 

Besides these home influences there are others of 
an international character tending to make the early 
adoption of the metric system by our country a ne- 
cessity. Scientific men and associations, and scien- 
tific journals, are using the metric system almost 
exclusively in their experiments, calculations, and 
writings. The International Statistical Congress, 
composed of representatives from all nations, pub- 
lish all their reports, containing information of vast 
importance to the world, in metric nomenclature. 
The International Social Science Association exerts 
a powerful influence in every country of the civilized 
globe. Its proceedings are given in metric terms. 

The indications at present are that the last coun- 

29 



450 GRADUATIXa SYSTEM FOR COUNTRY SCHOOLS. 

try to adopt the system will be either England or 
the United States, and neither will be long in fol- 
lowing the other. 

We led the world in decimal currency ; why 
should we be so slow in reducing all our other tables 
to equal simplicity ? When this country proclaimed 
itself independent of Great Britian, it is a matter of 
ofreat re^cret that we did not declare ourselves for- 
ever free from all the absurdities found in their 
tables of weights and measures. Instead of doing 
this, we accepted them all, and added some others of 
our own. None of our standards agree precisely 
with those of England, except that for the measure 
of length, and until the year 1855 there was a varia- 
tion in that also. The time is now at hand, in my 
judgment, for us to make our second declaration of 
independence. Congress should be petitioned to fix 
a time in the near future when this great and glori- 
ous change shall be accomplished, and we should all 
adapt ourselves to the new order of things as soon 
as possible. Teachers can do much to bring about 
this desirable result. The subject should be taught 
in every school. If the children now receiving their 
education become familiar with the metric units, they 
will find little trouble in their use in active life, and I 
have not the slightest doubt that the use of the 
system will be made compulsory before these chil- 
dren become men and women. 

The desirableness of this change is beyond all 
conception. It brings all ordinary calculations 



UNIFORM MONEY, WEIGHTS, AND MEASURES. 451 

within the arithmetic of every person who can add, 
subtract, multiply, and divide simple numbers. 
Two years, at least, can be saved of the time chil- 
dren now devote to arithmetic, and with this savinof 
the pupils, when they leave school, will be far bet- 
ter prepared to perform the arithmetical operations 
business calls for, than now. Devote this time 
gained to the study of other important subjects, and 
the advantages derived will be multiplied manifold. 

The teaching force of this country constitutes a 
tremendous power. Let it be found united in its 
efforts to secure, on the part of Congress, the adoption 
of the metric system, and the years will not be many 
before we are in possession of the greatest commercial 
blessing that can be secured. 



THE END. 



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